Bharat

Bharat:-

India, officially known as the Republic of India, is a country located in South Asia. It ranks as the seventh-largest country by area and, as of June 2023, has become the most populous country, surpassing China. Since its independence in 1947, it has been the world's largest democracy. India is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south, the Arabian Sea to the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands have maritime borders with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

Human settlement on the Indian subcontinent dates back at least 55,000 years, with early humans migrating from Africa. Over time, the region became highly diverse, second only to Africa in genetic variation. The rise of settled life began around 9,000 years ago in the western part of the Indus River basin, eventually evolving into the Indus Valley Civilization by the third millennium BCE. By 1200 BCE, Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, began spreading into India from the northwest. This period saw the early foundations of Hinduism, alongside the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism. Hinduism evolved with the concept of caste, while social orders were introduced by Buddhism and Jainism that were not based on heredity. Early political formations led to the rise of the Maurya and Gupta Empires, contributing to a flourishing of creativity, although the status of women declined, and untouchability became institutionalized. In South India, Dravidian language scripts and religious cultures were spread across Southeast Asia.

During the early medieval period, India saw the establishment of Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism along its southern and western coasts. Muslim armies from Central Asia intermittently invaded northern India, eventually forming the Delhi Sultanate, which brought northern India into the broader medieval Islamic world. Meanwhile, in the south, the Vijayanagara Empire fostered a long-lasting composite Hindu culture. Sikhism emerged in the Punjab, rejecting organized religious institutions. The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, brought relative peace for two centuries, leaving a rich architectural legacy. The British East India Company gradually expanded its rule, turning India into a colonial economy while consolidating its sovereignty. British Crown rule began in 1858, and while rights for Indians were granted slowly, it led to technological advancements, modern education, and the growth of a nationalist movement that ultimately contributed to ending British rule. In 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent nations, India, a Hindu-majority country, and Pakistan, a Muslim-majority country. This division led to large-scale violence and migration.

Since becoming a federal republic in 1950, India has been governed by a democratic parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic society, home to a variety of languages and ethnic groups. India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to nearly 1.4 billion in 2022. During this period, the country’s nominal per capita income increased from US$64 to US$2,601, and the literacy rate rose from 16.6% to 74%. While India was one of the most impoverished nations in 1951, it has since become one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies and a global hub for information technology services. The country also boasts an expanding middle class. Indian films and music have gained worldwide influence, and India has successfully reduced its poverty rate, although this has led to increasing economic inequality. As a nuclear-armed state with high military expenditure, India also faces long-standing territorial disputes with Pakistan and China, particularly over the Kashmir region. Among the socio-economic challenges India faces are gender inequality, child malnutrition, and rising air pollution. India is home to four biodiversity hotspots, and its wildlife, historically valued in its culture, is supported through conservation efforts in protected habitats.

History:-

Ancient India, beginning with the arrival of modern humans (Homo sapiens) around 55,000 years ago, witnessed significant cultural and societal developments. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago. By 6500 BCE, the domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent dwellings, and storage of surplus agricultural produce were evident at Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan. These practices laid the foundation for the rise of the Indus Valley Civilization, the first urban culture in South Asia, flourishing from 2500 to 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and western India. Major cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan were central to the civilization, which excelled in crafts production and extensive trade.

Between 2000 and 500 BCE, the subcontinent transitioned from Chalcolithic cultures to Iron Age societies. The Vedas, which are the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism, were composed during this period. Many historians believe that this time also saw waves of Indo-Aryan migrations into the subcontinent from the northwest. During this era, the caste system took shape, establishing a hierarchy with priests, warriors, and free peasants, while relegating indigenous people to impure occupations. In the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence suggests the emergence of chiefdoms. In South India, the period was marked by the construction of megalithic monuments, along with the development of agriculture, irrigation, and craft traditions.

Around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms in the Ganges Plain and north-western regions consolidated into 16 powerful oligarchies and monarchies, collectively known as the mahajanapadas. This period of increasing urbanization led to the rise of non-Vedic religious movements, including Jainism, which gained prominence under Mahavira, and Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha. These religions, advocating renunciation as an ideal, attracted followers across all social classes, except for the middle class, and established lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the Maurya Empire emerged, with the kingdom of Magadha annexing or reducing other states. The Maurya Empire, once believed to control most of the subcontinent, is now thought to have been divided into core regions and large autonomous areas. The Mauryan rulers, particularly Ashoka, are known for their contributions to empire-building and their advocacy for Buddhism.

From 200 BCE to 200 CE, the southern peninsula was dominated by the Chera, Chola, and Pandya dynasties, which engaged in extensive trade with the Roman Empire and regions in West and Southeast Asia. In North India, Hinduism became more patriarchal, leading to increased subordination of women. By the 4th and 5th centuries CE, the Gupta Empire rose to prominence in the greater Ganges Plain, establishing a complex administrative and taxation system that would serve as a model for future Indian kingdoms. Under the Guptas, Hinduism underwent a revival focused on devotion rather than ritual, reflected in a flourishing of sculpture, architecture, and classical Sanskrit literature. Advances were also made in Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics during this period.

Etymology:-

The name "India" originates from the Classical Latin term "India," which referred to South Asia and an uncertain region to its east. This term evolved from the Hellenistic Greek word "India," derived from the ancient Greek "Indos," which itself came from the Old Persian "Hindush," a region within the Achaemenid Empire. Ultimately, it traces back to the Sanskrit word "Sindhu," meaning "river," specifically the Indus River and its surrounding basin. The ancient Greeks called the people of this region "Indoi," meaning "the people of the Indus."

The name "Bharat" is used in many Indian languages and is mentioned in both ancient Indian epic literature and the Indian Constitution. It is a modern version of "Bharatavarsha," a term originally used to describe North India. From the mid-19th century onward, Bharat became a widely accepted native name for India.

"Hindustan," a name of Middle Persian origin, became popular by the 13th century and was commonly used during the Mughal Empire. Its meaning varied, sometimes referring to northern India and Pakistan, or at other times encompassing the entire Indian subcontinent.

different names for India and their origins:-

Name	Origin	Meaning/Reference	Time Period
India	Derived from Classical Latin "India"	Refers to South Asia and uncertain regions to its east; evolved from "Sindhu" (Indus River)	First used in ancient Greek and Roman times
Bharat	Derived from "Bharatavarsha" (Sanskrit)	A historical name for India; used to refer to the northern part of the Indian subcontinent	Gained popularity in the 19th century
Hindustan	Derived from Middle Persian "Hindush"	Refers to northern India or the entire Indian subcontinent, depending on the context	Became popular in the 13th century, especially during the Mughal Empire
Indoi	Derived from ancient Greek "Indos"	Refers to the people of the Indus River region; means "The people of the Indus"	Used by ancient Greeks (around 4th century BCE)
India	Derived from Classical Latin "India"	Refers to South Asia and uncertain regions to its east; evolved from "Sindhu" (Indus River)	First used in ancient Greek and Roman times

Medieval India:-

Medieval India refers to the period in Indian history that spans from the 6th to the 18th centuries, characterized by the rise and fall of empires, invasions, cultural transformations, and religious developments. This era can be broadly divided into two sub-periods: early medieval India (circa 600 CE to 1200 CE) and late medieval India (1200 CE to 1700 CE).

Early Medieval India (600-1200 CE):
During this period, the Indian subcontinent was divided into several regional kingdoms. While Harsha of Kannauj tried to expand his rule across the subcontinent in the 7th century, he faced defeat by powerful regional rulers like the Chalukyas, Pala kings, and the Cholas. The period saw the rise of new political formations, including kingdoms like the Cholas, Pandyas, and Chalukyas, which shaped the cultural landscape. The caste system evolved and became more rigid, with pastoral communities being integrated into the social structure.

Religious and Cultural Developments:

This period also witnessed a resurgence in Hinduism, particularly in the Tamil-speaking regions, where devotional hymns and literature flourished. Temples became economic and cultural hubs, with large temple towns emerging. The influence of Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia through trade and religious expansion. Additionally, new languages and regional literature started to develop.

Late Medieval India (1200-1700 CE):
The later medieval period in India is defined by the establishment of Islamic rule, beginning with the Delhi Sultanate in 1206. Muslim rulers from Central Asia invaded and conquered large parts of northern India, establishing a political system that had lasting effects on the subcontinent. The Delhi Sultanate expanded its reach, but the regional kingdoms of South India, including the powerful Vijayanagara Empire, continued to thrive.

Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526):
The Delhi Sultanate was established after repeated invasions by Central Asian Muslim rulers, who eventually consolidated their control over much of North India. While initially disruptive to Indian society, the Sultanate allowed non-Muslims to continue their religious and social practices. The sultanate is known for its military prowess, particularly in defending against Mongol invasions, and it helped shape a unique Indo-Islamic culture.

Mughal Empire (1526-1700 CE):
The Mughal Empire, founded by Babur in 1526, marked the beginning of a new era in India. The Mughals consolidated control over large parts of India and introduced administrative reforms, military innovations, and artistic developments. Under rulers like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan, the empire expanded significantly, and Indian culture saw a fusion of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian traditions. Mughal architecture, including the Taj Mahal, and advancements in art and science were notable during this period.

End of Medieval India:
The late medieval period in India came to a close with the decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century, weakened by internal strife and external invasions. This created a power vacuum that paved the way for the rise of regional powers and the eventual British colonial presence in India.

Geography:-

India, occupying the majority of the Indian subcontinent, rests atop the Indian tectonic plate, which is part of the larger Indo-Australian Plate. The geological formation of India began around 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, once part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, started drifting northeast due to seafloor spreading from the southwest. During this movement, the Tethyan oceanic crust, located to the northeast, began to subduct beneath the Eurasian Plate. This process, driven by mantle convection, not only created the Indian Ocean but also caused the Indian continental crust to thrust under Eurasia, leading to the uplift of the Himalayas. As the Himalayas emerged, a crescent-shaped trough formed just to their south, rapidly filling with riverborne sediment, creating the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The first appearance of the original Indian plate can be seen in the ancient Aravalli mountain range, stretching from the Delhi Ridge in the southwest. To the west of the Aravallis lies the Thar Desert, which is partially contained by these mountains.

The peninsular region of India, which is the oldest and most geologically stable part of the country, remains as the southern portion of the Indian Plate. The peninsular region extends up to the Satpura and Vindhya mountain ranges in central India, running from Gujarat on the Arabian Sea coast in the west to the Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. The Deccan Plateau, located in the south, is bordered by the Western and Eastern Ghats mountain ranges. These plateaus contain some of the oldest rock formations, some dating back over a billion years. India's geographical coordinates place it north of the equator, between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ latitude, and between 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ longitude.

India's coastline spans 7,517 kilometers (4,700 miles), with 5,423 kilometers (3,400 miles) belonging to the peninsular part and 2,094 kilometers (1,300 miles) to the island chains of the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep. The mainland coastline is composed of 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky shores and cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy shores. Major rivers originating in the Himalayas, such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra, flow through India and eventually drain into the Bay of Bengal. Key tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and Kosi rivers, with the latter’s gradual slope leading to frequent floods and shifts in its course. Important peninsular rivers, such as the Godavari, Mahanadi, Kaveri, and Krishna, also drain into the Bay of Bengal, while the Narmada and Tapti rivers empty into the Arabian Sea. Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch in the west and the alluvial Sundarbans delta in the east, which India shares with Bangladesh. India also has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep islands, located off the southwestern coast, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.

India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The Himalayas prevent cold winds from Central Asia from reaching the subcontinent, helping to keep the region warmer than other locations at similar latitudes. The Thar Desert plays a critical role in drawing the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds, which bring most of India’s rainfall between June and October. India experiences four main climatic zones: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.

Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7°C (1.3°F) from 1901 to 2018, largely due to climate change. This has impacted the flow rate of major rivers like the Ganges and Brahmaputra, as the Himalayan glaciers that feed these rivers have been retreating. Projections suggest that droughts in India will become more frequent and severe by the end of the century.

Politics:-

India operates as a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system. The country recognizes six national parties, including the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), as well as more than 50 regional parties. In Indian political culture, the Congress is considered a center-left party, while the BJP is identified as a right-wing party. From 1950, when India became a republic, until the late 1980s, the Congress had a dominant position in the Parliament. However, since then, political dynamics have shifted, with the Congress sharing influence with the BJP and powerful regional parties, leading to the formation of multi-party coalition governments at the national level.

In the early years of India’s democracy, the Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, won landslide victories in the first three general elections (1951, 1957, and 1962). After Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister, followed by Indira Gandhi, Nehru’s daughter, who led the Congress to victories in 1967 and 1971. After declaring a state of emergency in 1975, which led to public unrest, the Congress was defeated in 1977, and the Janata Party, which opposed the emergency, came to power. However, this government lasted only two years. Indira Gandhi’s assassination in 1984 led to her son, Rajiv Gandhi, taking over as the leader of the Congress, winning the 1984 elections. However, the Congress was voted out in 1989 in favor of the National Front coalition led by Janata Dal, but this government also did not last long. In the 1991 elections, the Congress formed a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao, despite no party winning an absolute majority.

The 1996 general election marked a period of political instability, with various short-lived alliances and coalitions in power. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) and, under Atal Bihari Vajpayee's leadership, became the first non-Congress coalition government to complete a full five-year term. In 2004, after another election where no party had an outright majority, the Congress led the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) into power, supported by left-leaning parties. The UPA maintained its position with increased support in the 2009 elections. That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Nehru to be re-elected for a second consecutive term. In 2014, the BJP won a majority for the first time since 1984, forming a government without the need for coalition support. The BJP secured another victory in the 2019 elections, but in 2024, the BJP failed to achieve a majority, leading to the formation of a BJP-led NDA coalition government. Narendra Modi, former chief minister of Gujarat, is currently serving as India’s 14th Prime Minister, holding office since May 26, 2014.

India’s system of governance is based on a federation with a parliamentary framework, defined by the Constitution of India, which serves as the nation’s supreme legal document. The Constitution, effective from January 26, 1950, initially declared India as a "sovereign, democratic republic" and was amended in 1971 to add "socialist" and "secular" to this characterization. Historically, India’s form of government has been described as "quasi-federal," with a strong central government and weaker states. However, since the late 1990s, this system has become more federal due to political, economic, and social changes.

The Government of India consists of three branches: the Executive, the Legislature, and the Judiciary. The President of India is the ceremonial head of state, elected indirectly by an electoral college for a five-year term. The Prime Minister, who holds the executive power, is appointed by the President and is usually supported by the party or coalition that holds the majority in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament). The executive comprises the President, Vice President, and Union Council of Ministers, with the Cabinet serving as its decision-making body, headed by the Prime Minister. Ministers must be members of one of the two houses of Parliament, and the executive is answerable to the legislature.

The Indian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body with 245 members, serving staggered six-year terms, with elections every two years. Most members are indirectly elected by state and union territories’ legislatures, based on their population. The Lok Sabha comprises 543 members, directly elected by citizens aged 18 and older for five-year terms, representing single-member constituencies. Historically, Anglo-Indians were nominated to two seats in the Lok Sabha, but this provision was removed in 2019. Some seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes based on their population proportion in each state.

India’s judiciary is independent and consists of a three-tier system: the Supreme Court, 25 High Courts, and numerous trial courts. The Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, has original jurisdiction over fundamental rights cases and disputes between states and the central government. It also has appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts and can strike down laws or government actions deemed unconstitutional.

Economy:-

India's nominal GDP in 2024 was $3.94 trillion, making it the fifth-largest economy by market exchange rates and the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) at $15.0 trillion. Over the past 20 years, India’s economy grew at an average of 5.8%, with significant growth in the service, industrial, and agricultural sectors. However, despite rapid growth, its GDP per capita remains low, ranking 136th in nominal terms and 125th in PPP-adjusted terms, indicating widespread low-income levels. Economic liberalization in 1991 led India toward a more market-oriented economy. As of 2023, India’s labor force, the second-largest globally, is a key driver of economic growth, with the service sector contributing 55.6% to GDP and industries like textiles, pharmaceuticals, and software playing major roles.

India's foreign exchange remittances were the highest in the world in 2022, amounting to $100 billion. Its agricultural sector produces key products like rice, wheat, and cotton, while its manufacturing industry, including textiles and steel, contributes significantly to exports. In 2021, India was the world’s ninth-largest importer and 16th-largest exporter. India’s growth has led to a substantial reduction in poverty, with projections showing the middle class growing to 580 million by 2030. India is expected to overtake the United States in GDP (PPP) by 2045, with an average growth rate of 8% annually. However, challenges remain in areas like public sector reform, infrastructure, and health.

India's telecom industry is the second-largest in the world, and it became the third-largest automotive market in 2022. The pharmaceutical sector is also a global leader, particularly in generic medicines and vaccines. In the energy sector, India’s capacity for electricity generation reached 300 gigawatts in 2024, with 42 gigawatts from renewable sources. Despite these developments, India faces socio-economic issues such as poverty, malnutrition, and modern slavery, with significant inequality between states. India’s population surpassed 1.42 billion in 2023, making it the world’s most populous country. The literacy rate is improving, especially in states like Kerala.

India’s demographic makeup is diverse, with Hindi being the official language, though English also plays a significant role. Hinduism is the dominant religion, followed by Islam, Christianity, and other faiths, with India having the third-largest Muslim population globally.

Culture:-

Indian cultural history spans over 4,500 years. The Vedic period (around 1700 BCE – 500 BCE) laid the foundations for Hindu philosophy, mythology, theology, and literature. It introduced core concepts such as dharma, karma, yoga, and moksha, which continue to influence practices today. India is known for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism being major religions. Hinduism, the dominant religion, evolved through various philosophical schools like the Upanishads, Yoga Sutras, and the Bhakti movement, as well as Buddhist influences.

India boasts a rich tradition of art, significantly influenced by religious themes. The Indus Valley Civilization left behind numerous seals, most featuring animals, with the "Pashupati" seal being one of the most famous. The Mauryan Empire marked the start of major imperial art movements, and Buddhist art spread across Central, East, and Southeast Asia, influencing Hindu art. Over time, Indian sculptures developed a unique style, focusing on flowing forms rather than anatomical precision, with iconic figures like Shiva and Parvati sometimes depicted with multiple arms or heads. Buddhist sculptures and rock-cut reliefs from sites like Sanchi and Ajanta are some of the earliest examples of large-scale Indian art.

Gupta art (c. 300 CE – 500 CE) is considered a classical period, with Hindu sculpture reaching new heights. Later, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, southern India saw a golden age in sculpture, producing masterpieces like the bronze figure of Shiva as Nataraja. Ancient Indian painting, especially from the Ajanta Caves, was highly developed, and Persian-influenced Deccan painting emerged before the Mughal miniature. The 19th century saw a rise in urban folk art like Kalighat paintings, leading to the Bengal School of Art.

Indian architecture blends local traditions with external influences, such as Mughal and Indo-Islamic styles. Vastu Shastra, the science of architecture, emphasizes cosmic alignment in temple construction. The Taj Mahal, a symbol of Indo-Islamic architecture, was built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife and remains a global icon. The British-era Indo-Saracenic style further influenced architectural design.

Indian literature spans several millennia, with early works composed in Sanskrit. Notable texts include the Rigveda, the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, and the dramas of Kalidasa. Tamil literature, such as Sangam poetry, dates back to around 600 BCE. From the 14th to the 18th centuries, devotional poets like Kabir and Tulsidas marked a shift in literary expression. The 19th and 20th centuries saw a focus on social issues, with Rabindranath Tagore receiving the Nobel Prize in Literature for his contributions.

India's performing arts are diverse, with classical music divided into two main traditions: Hindustani and Carnatic. Folk dances like bhangra, garba, and ghoomar are widely practiced, alongside classical dance forms such as Bharatanatyam, Kathak, and Odissi. Indian theatre blends music, dance, and dialogue, with regional variations like the jatra of West Bengal and the nautanki of North India. Bollywood, the Hindi-language film industry, is the largest in the world, and regional cinemas also thrive. Television has become a dominant media, with millions of viewers across India.

Indian society has historically been defined by a hierarchical caste system, with jatis or castes shaping social relations. Though untouchability was abolished in 1950, discrimination persists, and various welfare measures have been introduced. Family values are central to Indian society, with arranged marriages being the norm, though divorce rates remain low. Gender inequality, such as female foeticide and infanticide, continues to affect society, despite legal efforts to address these issues.

The Indian education system, the second-largest in the world, has improved over the decades. The literacy rate reached 73% in 2011, with significant strides made in both male and female literacy. The country has a large network of universities and colleges, and affirmative action policies aim to help historically disadvantaged groups.

Traditional Indian clothing includes the sari for women and the dhoti for men, with draped garments being common historically. The influence of Muslim rule introduced stitched garments, including the shalwar, pyjama, kurta, and kameez. While traditional attire remains popular for formal occasions, modern clothing like jeans and churidars are now widespread, particularly in urban areas.

Indian cuisine is characterized by diverse regional dishes, with rice, chapati, and dosa as staples. Indian food incorporates a wide range of spices, and vegetarianism is prevalent, particularly in southern India. While meat consumption is lower compared to other countries, dairy remains a primary source of protein. The Mughal Empire greatly influenced Indian cooking techniques, introducing dishes like biryani and tandoori chicken, which are now iconic in Indian cuisine.

Sports in India include traditional games like kabaddi, kho kho, and Kalaripayattu, alongside modern sports such as cricket, field hockey, badminton, boxing, and wrestling. Cricket is the most popular sport, with India winning multiple World Cups. India has also excelled in shooting sports, field hockey, and other disciplines at international competitions. Football remains popular in regions like West Bengal and Kerala, and professional leagues like the Indian Premier League and Indian Super League contribute to the country's sporting culture.

References:-

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