Canada, located in North America, is the second-largest country in the world by total area, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and extending into the Arctic Ocean. Its vast landscape features a variety of meteorological and geological regions, and it boasts the longest coastline on the planet. Sharing the world’s longest international land border with the United States, Canada is home to a population of over 41 million, with the majority living in urban centers, while vast areas remain sparsely populated. The capital city is Ottawa, and its largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Capital	Ottawa
Largest city	Toronto
Official languages	English ,  French
Demonym	Canadian
Government	Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Monarch	Charles III
Governor General	Mary Simon
• Prime Minister	Justin Trudeau
Legislature	Parliament
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Commons
• Confederation	July 1, 1867
• Statute of Westminster, 1931	December 11, 1931
• Patriation	April 17, 1982
• Total area	9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi)
• Water (%)	11.76 (2015)
• Total land area	9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi)
• 2024 Q4 estimate	41,465,298
• 2021 census	36,991,981
• Density	4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	$2.582 trillion
• Per capita	$62,766
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimat
• Total	$2.215 trillion
• Per capita	$53,834
Gini (2024)	29.2
HDI (2022)	0.935
Currency	Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone	UTC−3.5 to −8
• Summer (DST)	UTC−2.5 to −7
Calling code	+1
Internet TLD	.ca

Indigenous peoples have lived on the land now known as Canada for thousands of years. European exploration began in the 16th century with French and British expeditions along the Atlantic coast. After a series of conflicts, France ceded most of its North American territories in 1763. Canada’s formation as a federal dominion in 1867, through the union of three British North American colonies, marked the beginning of its growth into a fully independent nation. This process of expansion continued over time, displacing Indigenous communities, and gradually increasing its autonomy from the United Kingdom. By 1931, the Statute of Westminster paved the way for Canada’s independence, culminating in the Canada Act of 1982, which fully severed its legal ties to British Parliament.

Canada operates as a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The prime minister serves as head of government and is appointed by the governor general, who represents the monarch, the ceremonial head of state. The country is officially bilingual, with English and French as its two official languages. Canada is highly regarded for its transparency, quality of life, and competitiveness on the global stage, excelling in areas like innovation, education, and human rights. Known for its ethnic diversity, the country has been shaped by large waves of immigration and is recognized for its multiculturalism.

As a developed nation, Canada has a strong economy, ranking among the largest in the world in terms of nominal GDP. Its prosperity is largely based on its natural resources and extensive trade relationships. A middle power on the global stage, Canada is a proponent of multilateralism and peacekeeping, offering aid to developing nations. It actively participates in numerous international organizations and forums, helping to shape global policy and diplomacy.

Etymology of the Name "Canada"

The origin of the name "Canada" has been the subject of various theories, but it is widely accepted to derive from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement." In 1535, Indigenous people in the Quebec City region used the word to guide French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona. Cartier later expanded the term "Canada" to refer not just to Stadacona but to the broader area controlled by Donnacona, the chief of Stadacona. By 1545, European books and maps began using "Canada" to describe the region along the Saint Lawrence River.

From the 16th century through the early 18th century, "Canada" referred to the part of New France located along the Saint Lawrence River. After the British conquest of New France in 1763, the area became known as the British Province of Quebec. In 1791, Quebec was split into two British colonies: Upper Canada and Lower Canada, which were collectively referred to as the "Canadas." These two colonies merged in 1841 to form the British Province of Canada.

When Canada became a self-governing nation in 1867, the name "Canada" was adopted as the official title for the new country, with "dominion" also being conferred as its title. By the 1950s, however, the United Kingdom no longer used the term "Dominion of Canada," recognizing it as a "realm of the Commonwealth."

The Canada Act of 1982, which transferred full control of the Canadian Constitution to Canada, referred solely to "Canada." Later that year, the national holiday was renamed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.

History of Canada

Indigenous Peoples

It is believed that the first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia via the Bering land bridge at least 14,000 years ago. Some of the oldest human habitation sites in Canada include the Paleo-Indian archaeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves. Indigenous societies were characterized by permanent settlements, agriculture, complex social hierarchies, and extensive trading networks. However, many of these cultures had already declined by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, with their existence primarily known through archaeological findings.

Today, the Indigenous peoples of Canada include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The Métis people, of mixed descent, emerged in the mid-17th century through the intermarriage of First Nations people and European settlers, eventually developing their own distinct identity.

At the time of the first European settlements, the Indigenous population is estimated to have ranged from 200,000 to two million, with the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples accepting a figure of 500,000. However, European colonization led to a drastic decline in the Indigenous population, with estimates of a reduction by 40% to 80%. This decline is attributed to factors such as exposure to European diseases, conflicts over the fur trade, battles with colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands, which severely impacted their self-sufficiency.

While early European settlers had relatively peaceful interactions with First Nations and Inuit groups, relations changed over time. First Nations and Métis peoples played crucial roles in the development of European colonies, especially by assisting European explorers in the fur trade. However, these early peaceful exchanges eventually gave way to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties, and European settlers began forcing Indigenous peoples to assimilate into Western Canadian society. The process of settler colonialism reached its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

A period of reconciliation began in 2008 when the Canadian government established a commission to address these historical wrongs. This initiative included acknowledging the cultural genocide of Indigenous peoples, providing settlement agreements, and addressing issues like racial discrimination, particularly in the case of missing and murdered Indigenous women.

European Colonization of Canada

Early European Exploration

The first recorded European exploration of Canada's east coast is attributed to Norse explorer Leif Erikson, who is believed to have established a temporary settlement around 1000 AD at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. This settlement lasted for about 20 years but was abandoned, and no further European exploration occurred until 1497 when John Cabot, sailing under the English flag, claimed the Atlantic coast of Canada for King Henry VII of England. In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier navigated the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and claimed the territory of New France in the name of King Francis I of France.

Throughout the early 16th century, European mariners, influenced by Basque and Portuguese navigational techniques, set up seasonal whaling and fishing stations along the Atlantic coast. However, many early settlements failed to establish lasting roots due to harsh climates, difficulties with navigation, and competition from Scandinavian territories.

Establishment of Settlements

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, under the authority of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John's in Newfoundland, the first permanent English settlement in North America. French settlers followed in 1600, establishing their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac on the Saint Lawrence River. Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer, arrived in 1603 and founded the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608. The French settlers, known as Canadiens, settled predominantly in the Saint Lawrence River valley, while Acadians settled in the Maritimes. French fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored further into the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi Valley, extending the reach of New France.

English Expansion and Conflict

Meanwhile, the English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 and later expanded into the Thirteen Colonies to the south. The 17th and 18th centuries were marked by a series of conflicts between the European powers. The Beaver Wars, fought in the mid-17th century, were primarily about control of the lucrative fur trade. By 1713, following the Treaty of Utrecht, Nova Scotia became a British colony, and after the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), New France, along with most of Canada, came under British control.

British North America

After the British conquest of New France, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nations treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. In 1774, the Quebec Act expanded Quebec's territory and granted it significant autonomy, including the re-establishment of French language, Catholicism, and French civil law. These measures were intended to prevent unrest in Quebec, which could mirror the growing discontent in the Thirteen Colonies, where anti-British sentiment was escalating.

The 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the United States and ceded much of the land south of the Great Lakes to the new nation. This loss, however, sparked a large migration of Loyalists (those who supported the British during the American Revolution) to Canada. Many of these Loyalists settled in Atlantic Canada, altering the demographic composition of the region. In response, the Province of New Brunswick was created, and the Constitutional Act of 1791 split Quebec into two provinces: English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario) and French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec).

The War of 1812 and Later Developments

The Canadas were the primary battleground during the War of 1812, fought between the United States and the United Kingdom. The war ended in 1815 with no territorial changes. Following the war, immigration to Canada surged, with over 960,000 British settlers arriving between 1815 and 1850, many of whom were fleeing the Great Irish Famine or displaced by the Highland Clearances in Scotland. However, disease outbreaks during this period significantly reduced the number of immigrants surviving in Canada.

In the 1830s, tensions over self-government led to the Rebellions of 1837, which ultimately resulted in the 1840 Act of Union, merging Upper and Lower Canada into the united Province of Canada. Responsible government was gradually established for all British North American provinces by 1855.

Expanding Boundaries and Settlements

The Oregon Treaty of 1846 between the United Kingdom and the United States resolved the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border west along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for the colonization of Vancouver Island in 1849 and British Columbia in 1858. Furthermore, the Anglo-Russian Treaty of 1825 established the border along the Pacific coast, though disputes over the Alaska-Yukon and Alaska-British Columbia borders continued even after the U.S. Alaska Purchase of 1867.

The period leading up to Confederation in 1867 saw significant changes in the political and territorial landscape of Canada, setting the stage for the formation of the modern Canadian nation.

Confederation and Expansion

Confederation (1867)

Canada's path to becoming a unified nation began with the British North America Act, 1867, which officially established Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867. Initially, four provinces joined the Confederation: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. At this point, Canada also took control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory, merging them into the Northwest Territories. The Métis people's grievances led to the Red River Rebellion, resulting in the creation of the province of Manitoba in 1870.

Expansion Westward

The westward expansion was a major focus of the Canadian government, which aimed to encourage European immigration and open up the West. A key part of this expansion was the promise of a transcontinental railway, which British Columbia joined the Confederation in 1871 on the condition that a railway would be built to Victoria, its capital. Prince Edward Island also joined the Confederation in 1873.

In 1898, the Yukon Territory was created following the Klondike Gold Rush. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905, marking the expansion of Canada’s western borders. Between 1871 and 1896, Canada experienced significant emigration to the United States, with nearly a quarter of the Canadian population moving south.

To facilitate the development of the West, Canada funded the construction of three transcontinental railways, including the Canadian Pacific Railway. The government also passed the Dominion Lands Act, which regulated settlement, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert Canadian authority over the land.

This period also led to the displacement of many Indigenous peoples, particularly those in the Canadian Prairies. Indigenous populations were relocated to "Indian reserves," and the collapse of the Plains Bison population due to overhunting greatly affected their way of life. To cope with the changes, the federal government introduced emergency relief, but only if Indigenous peoples moved to the reserves. The Indian Act was implemented, giving the government control over First Nations' education, legal rights, and governance.

Early 20th Century

In 1914, World War I began, and Canada's participation was automatic due to its ties with Britain under the British North America Act. The Canadian Corps played a pivotal role in battles like Vimy Ridge, and the war had a lasting impact on Canada's identity. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 was particularly divisive, especially in Quebec, where French-speaking Canadians strongly opposed conscription.

After the war, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain in 1919, further asserting its sovereignty. The Statute of Westminster in 1931 officially recognized Canada's legislative independence.

The Great Depression of the early 1930s hit Canada hard, but in response, Saskatchewan’s Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) introduced welfare state measures, including Tommy Douglas's healthcare reforms.

World War II

During World War II, Canada declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939, seven days after Britain did. More than a million Canadians served in the military, participating in key battles such as the Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, and the Battle of Normandy. Canada’s economy boomed as industries manufactured war material for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.

Despite internal divisions, particularly in Quebec, Canada finished the war with a robust economy and a larger, more modern army.

Post-War Canada

Following World War II, Canada experienced substantial economic growth and a shift toward a new Canadian identity. Key milestones in this transformation included the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism in 1969, and the introduction of official multiculturalism in 1971. Social democratic programs such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans were established, although some provincial governments, notably Quebec and Alberta, opposed these programs as encroachments on their jurisdictions.

Constitutional Changes and Quebec Nationalism

In 1982, Canada gained full sovereignty with the patriation of its constitution through the Canada Act, which included the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This reaffirmed Canada’s independence from Britain and established rights that protected individual freedoms.

Meanwhile, Quebec underwent significant changes during the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, fostering a growing secular nationalist movement. This led to the rise of the Parti Québécois, which organized a referendum on Quebec's sovereignty in 1980. The referendum was rejected, but Quebec nationalism persisted. A second referendum was held in 1995, which again resulted in a narrow defeat for sovereignty (50.6% against, 49.4% for).

Efforts to address Quebec’s constitutional demands, such as the Meech Lake Accord, failed, and in 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that a province could not secede unilaterally. The Clarity Act of 2000 established that any secession would need to be negotiated.

Challenges and International Involvement

Canada faced a number of domestic challenges in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, including the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985 and the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989. The Oka Crisis of 1990 marked a significant confrontation between Indigenous groups and provincial authorities.

Internationally, Canada remained involved in peacekeeping operations, including in the Balkans and Somalia. The country participated in the Gulf War in 1990 and later joined the War on Terror, sending troops to Afghanistan in 2001, where it faced significant casualties.

In 2011, Canada was part of a NATO-led intervention in the Libyan Civil War and engaged in military operations against the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.

Recent Developments

In 2017, Canada celebrated its 150th anniversary, but the country was soon affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in 2020 and caused widespread social and economic disruption. In 2021, a tragic discovery of unmarked graves at former Canadian Indian residential schools brought attention to the historical trauma caused by these institutions, which sought to forcibly assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture. The discovery sparked national conversations about reconciliation and the need to address the long-standing injustices faced by Indigenous peoples.

Through these ongoing challenges and changes, Canada has continued to evolve into a diverse, multicultural nation that seeks to balance its historical roots with contemporary issues.

Geography of Canada

Canada is the second-largest country in the world by total area, including its waters, and ranks fourth in terms of land area alone. This is primarily due to its vast freshwater lakes, which make it home to the largest such body of water on Earth. Spanning from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, across the Arctic Ocean to the north, and reaching the Pacific Ocean in the west, Canada covers a vast 9,984,670 km² (3,855,100 sq mi). It also has the longest coastline in the world, stretching 243,042 kilometers (151,019 miles).

Canada shares the world’s longest land border with the United States (8,891 km / 5,525 miles), and also has borders with Greenland (through Hans Island) and France's overseas territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. The northernmost settlement in the country, Canadian Forces Station Alert, is located on Ellesmere Island at 82.5°N, just 817 kilometers (508 miles) from the North Pole. Canada’s northernmost land point is Cape Columbia in Nunavut, while the southernmost point of land is Middle Island in Lake Erie.

The country can be divided into seven major physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago. Canada’s landscape features boreal forests, ice-covered northern Arctic regions, and the relatively flat Prairies in the southwest, ideal for agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River, which flows through the southeastern lowlands, an economically productive area. Canada is home to over 2 million lakes, many of which are larger than 100 km², and these lakes store a significant portion of the world's fresh water.

Canada is geologically active, experiencing frequent earthquakes and having potentially active volcanoes.

Climate

The climate across Canada is diverse and varies widely between regions. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, especially in the interior and Prairie provinces, where temperatures can average near -15°C (5°F) but may drop to -40°C (-40°F) with severe wind chill. Snow can cover the ground for up to six months in some areas, while northern regions may experience snow year-round. The coastal regions of British Columbia have a milder, temperate climate with rainy winters, while the interior sees hotter summers, with temperatures sometimes exceeding 40°C (104°F).

The Arctic regions of Canada are predominantly covered by ice and permafrost. However, climate change has had a significant impact, with the Arctic warming at three times the global average rate. Since 1948, Canada's average temperature has risen by 1.7°C (3.1°F), with higher rates of warming observed in northern regions and the Prairies. Air pollution, particularly from the United States, has led to acid rain, which affects waterways, forests, and agriculture.

Biodiversity

Canada is home to a rich array of wildlife, encompassing over 80,000 classified species, with many more yet to be formally recognized. The country’s low percentage of endemic species is offset by its vast, relatively undisturbed landscapes. However, human activities and invasive species have threatened biodiversity, with over 800 species at risk. Approximately 65% of Canada’s resident species are considered secure.

More than half of Canada’s landscape remains largely intact, with the boreal forest being the largest intact forest on Earth, stretching across 3,000,000 km² (1,200,000 sq mi). The nation is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones, with numerous conservation efforts underway. About 12.1% of Canada’s land and freshwater are designated as conservation areas, including protected zones like Banff National Park, which covers 6,641 square kilometers (2,564 sq mi), and Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area, the world’s largest freshwater protected area at 10,000 square kilometers (3,900 sq mi).

Canada has taken steps to preserve its natural environment through the establishment of national parks and wildlife areas. For instance, the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area covers 11,570.65 square kilometers (4,467.45 sq mi), the largest national wildlife region in the country.

Government and Politics of Canada

Canada is a "full democracy" with a tradition rooted in liberalism and an egalitarian political culture, emphasizing social justice. The principles of peace, order, and good government, along with an Implied Bill of Rights, are key elements of Canadian federalism.

At the federal level, Canadian politics is largely shaped by two centrist parties: the center-left Liberal Party of Canada and the center-right Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors). The political landscape has remained moderate, and far-left or far-right ideologies have never played a significant role. In the 2021 federal elections, five parties were represented in Parliament: the Liberals, forming a minority government; the Conservatives as the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party (NDP); the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party.

Canada operates under a parliamentary system within a constitutional monarchy. The monarch, who is also the ruler of 14 other Commonwealth realms, appoints a governor general to carry out most ceremonial duties on the advice of the prime minister. While the monarch holds sovereignty, executive powers are largely exercised by the Cabinet, headed by the prime minister, who is the head of government. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) holds considerable influence, overseeing the initiation of most legislative actions and appointments.

Law

The Constitution of Canada is the highest law of the land, combining written elements and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act of 1867 (formerly the British North America Act) set up the governance structure and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. Canada gained full legislative independence from Britain through the Statute of Westminster in 1931, and further solidified its autonomy with the Constitution Act of 1982, which also introduced the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees fundamental rights, with the provision of a "notwithstanding clause" allowing temporary suspension of certain rights.

Canada’s judiciary interprets laws, with the Supreme Court of Canada as the highest legal authority. The court is headed by the Chief Justice, appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the prime minister. Common law is predominant in most provinces, except for Quebec, where civil law applies. Law enforcement responsibilities lie primarily with provincial and municipal forces, though the Royal Canadian Mounted Police handle certain rural and federal duties.

Provinces and Territories

Canada comprises 10 provinces and 3 territories. These are grouped into four regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada. While provinces have authority derived directly from the Constitution, territories have powers delegated by the federal government. Provincial governments oversee areas like healthcare, education, and social programs, while the federal government manages national matters such as defense and criminal law. Equalization payments from the federal government ensure that provinces maintain equitable standards of services.

Foreign Relations

Canada is recognized as a middle power, with a focus on multilateral diplomacy and international cooperation. The country has long been committed to peacekeeping, humanitarian aid, and global development efforts. Canada shares close ties with the United States, collaborating frequently on military and humanitarian issues. It also maintains historic relationships with the United Kingdom and France, particularly through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.

Canada plays an active role in global organizations such as the United Nations, World Trade Organization, G7, and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Additionally, Canada is a founding member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), and it holds diplomatic missions in over 270 locations worldwide.

Military and Peacekeeping

Canada has a well-regarded military that is involved in numerous international operations. The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) consists of the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. As of 2022, the military employs roughly 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserves, with an additional 5,000 Canadian Rangers. Canada has historically played a pivotal role in peacekeeping, significantly contributing to global stability, particularly during the 20th century. This tradition of peacekeeping remains integral to Canada’s foreign policy, although direct participation in UN peacekeeping missions has declined since the 21st century, shifting more towards NATO operations.

Economy

Canada boasts one of the largest and most developed economies in the world, ranking ninth globally with a nominal GDP of approximately $2.2 trillion. The country has a highly globalized and service-based economy, with significant contributions from the manufacturing, mining, and agriculture sectors. Canada is one of the world's top exporters of energy, with vast natural gas and oil reserves, particularly in Alberta. It also leads in agricultural production, particularly grains. Canada's financial hub is in Toronto, the second-largest financial center in North America. Trade agreements like the Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement have deepened economic ties with the U.S., which remains Canada’s largest trading partner.

Science and Technology

Canada is a global leader in innovation, with significant contributions to the fields of genetics, medical science, and technology. The country is credited with the discovery of insulin, the development of the polio vaccine, and the invention of the electron microscope. Canada is also a key player in space exploration, with the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) contributing to projects such as the International Space Station and developing important robotic tools like Canadarm. The nation's commitment to research and development is reflected in significant funding for scientific endeavors, ensuring Canada’s continued position at the forefront of global innovation.

Demographics

Canada's population, which surpassed 40 million in 2023, continues to grow primarily through immigration. The nation is known for its multicultural society, with over 450 ethnic origins reported in the 2021 census. While the majority of Canadians are of European descent, the country has seen substantial growth in visible minorities, particularly South Asians, Chinese, and Black Canadians. Canada’s large cities, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver, are home to diverse immigrant communities, making urban areas highly multicultural. Canada also leads in refugee resettlement, further emphasizing its commitment to immigration and cultural integration.

Languages

Canada is a bilingual nation with English and French as its official languages. Approximately 98% of Canadians can speak either or both of these languages. English is the mother tongue of around 57% of Canadians, while French is the mother tongue of about 21%. The country’s official bilingualism policies ensure citizens can receive federal services in either language. Quebec has the highest concentration of French speakers, with the province enacting the 1974 Official Language Act, which made French the sole official language of the province. In New Brunswick, French and English are both official languages, and the province is home to a significant Acadian French minority.

In addition to these official languages, Canada is home to a diverse range of languages. More than 7.8 million Canadians speak a non-official language as their first language. Some of the most commonly spoken non-official languages include Mandarin, Punjabi, Cantonese, Spanish, Arabic, Tagalog, Italian, German, and Tamil. Indigenous languages are also an important part of the linguistic landscape, with several languages having official status in certain territories, such as Inuktitut in Nunavut and several Indigenous languages in the Northwest Territories.

Religion

Canada is a religiously diverse country, with the Constitution ensuring freedom of religion for all citizens. While Christianity has historically been the dominant religion in Canada, its influence has steadily declined since the 1970s, and the nation is now considered largely secular. Christianity remains the largest religion, with Roman Catholics making up the largest group, representing 29.9% of the population. In addition to Christianity, other religions practiced in Canada include Islam (4.9%), Hinduism (2.3%), Sikhism (2.1%), Buddhism (1.0%), Judaism (0.9%), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2%).

Religion in Canada is generally regarded as a private matter, and rates of religious adherence have decreased significantly in recent decades. However, belief in God persists for many Canadians, even if they do not actively practice a religion. Canada is also home to the second-largest Sikh population in the world, after India.

Health

Healthcare in Canada is publicly funded and delivered through provincial and territorial systems, collectively known as Medicare. It is universal and governed by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984. While Medicare covers the majority of healthcare expenses, around 30% of healthcare costs are paid for privately, often for services like prescription drugs, dentistry, and optometry. Approximately 65-75% of Canadians have supplementary health insurance, often provided through employers or social programs.

Canada faces rising healthcare expenditures due to an aging population, with more retirees and fewer working-age individuals. Despite these challenges, Canada maintains relatively good healthcare indicators, though weaknesses have been identified, including long wait times, infant mortality, and limited prescription drug coverage. There is also a shortage of healthcare professionals and hospital capacity, contributing to the strain on the system.

Education

Education in Canada is predominantly publicly funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments. Each province has its own curriculum, and education is available in both English and French. Canada's post-secondary institutions, almost all publicly funded, are numerous, with the University of Toronto, McGill, and the University of British Columbia being the top three.

Canada is recognized as one of the most educated countries in the world, with over 56% of Canadian adults holding a tertiary education degree. The country spends around 5.3% of its GDP on education. The literacy rate stands at 99%, with a mandatory education age ranging from 5-7 to 16-18 years. Canada performs well in international educational assessments in reading, mathematics, and science.

Culture

Canada's culture is shaped by a diverse array of influences, including British, French, Indigenous, and immigrant traditions.

The country’s official multiculturalism policy is central to Canadian identity, and the nation emphasizes human rights, inclusivity, and social justice. Quebec, with its French-speaking population, has a distinct cultural identity from English-speaking Canada.

Canada's multicultural approach supports selective immigration, social integration, and the suppression of far-right politics. Key national values include publicly funded healthcare, strong social programs, women's rights, and LGBT rights. Canadian identity is also reflected in its foreign aid policies, peacekeeping efforts, and national symbols like the maple leaf.

Symbols

Canada's symbols emphasize nature, national history, and multiculturalism. The maple leaf, used since the 18th century, is a prominent symbol of the nation and is featured on the national flag. Other important symbols include the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Canada’s national motto, “A mari usque ad mare,” (“From Sea to Sea”), reflects the country’s vast geography.

The country also has a distinct cultural and culinary identity, with unique foods like maple syrup, poutine, and butter tarts, as well as cultural icons such as hockey and the totem pole. Canadian coins feature symbols like the loon on the $1 coin, the beaver on the nickel, and the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece.

Literature

Canadian literature is divided into French- and English-language traditions, each with roots in their respective cultural histories. Early Canadian literature focused on travel and exploration, evolving into themes like nature, frontier life, and Canada’s place in the world. More recent works have been influenced by immigrants, contributing to Canada’s diverse literary scene.

Notable Canadian authors include Margaret Atwood, Alice Munro, Michael Ondaatje, and L. M. Montgomery. Atwood has won two Booker Prizes, Munro won a Nobel Prize for Literature, and Ondaatje’s novel The English Patient was adapted into an Academy Award-winning film.

Media

Canada has a diverse and highly regulated media landscape. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content and broadcasting in both English and French. Other public broadcasters include TVOntario and Télé-Québec.

The Canadian media is influenced by both local creators and foreign imports, particularly from the United States and the United Kingdom. To preserve Canadian culture, government regulations and funding support domestic media production and limit foreign competition, especially in magazine advertising.

Visual Arts

Canada's art history spans thousands of years, from Indigenous peoples' art to modern and contemporary works. Canadian artists have drawn from British, French, and Indigenous traditions to create a unique national art identity. The Group of Seven, a famous collective of Canadian artists founded in 1920, sought to capture the Canadian wilderness, while Emily Carr depicted Indigenous cultures and landscapes on the West Coast.

Indigenous artists like Norval Morrisseau blended traditional techniques with modern art styles, contributing to a flourishing contemporary art scene in Canada today. Other notable artists include Jean-Paul Riopelle and Paul-Émile Borduas, who were key figures in the development of abstract art.

Music

Canada’s music scene is diverse, reflecting the country’s regional differences. The Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers and musicians. The government supports this industry through initiatives like the Canada Music Fund.

Canada's musical landscape includes a variety of genres, from classical to pop and rock. The Juno Awards celebrate Canadian musical achievements, while the Canadian Music Hall of Fame honors lifetime contributions to the country’s music scene. Patriotic music, such as “O Canada” and "The Maple Leaf Forever," is also significant in Canadian culture.

Sports

Ice hockey and lacrosse are Canada’s official national sports. Other popular sports include curling, basketball, baseball, and soccer. Canada has achieved success at the Winter Olympics, with the country excelling in winter sports, while also making notable appearances in the Summer Olympics.

The country is also known for its professional sports leagues, including the National Hockey League (NHL) and Major League Soccer (MLS). Sports participation is high, with swimming, cycling, and running being particularly popular among Canadians. Winter sports, such as hockey and skiing, are widely enjoyed by the Canadian-born population.

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