China, officially known as the People's Republic of China, is a vast East Asian nation with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, making it the second-most populous country after India. It accounts for approximately 17.4% of the global population. Covering nearly 9.6 million square kilometers (3.7 million square miles), China is the world's third-largest country by land area, spanning five time zones and sharing borders with 14 nations.

Capital	Beijing
Largest city by municipal boundary	Chongqing
Largest city by urban population	Shanghai
Official languages	Standard Chinese (de facto)
Official script	Simplified characters
Ethnic groups (2020)	91.1% Han Chinese 8.9% others
Religion (2023)	33.4% Buddhism 25.2% no religion 19.6% Taoism 17.7% other folk beliefs 2.5% Christianity 1.6% Islam
Formation
Demonym	Chinese
Government	Unitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic
• CCP General Secretary and President	Xi Jinping
• Premier	Li Qiang
• Congress Chairman	Zhao Leji
• CPPCC Chairman	Wang Huning
• Vice President	Han Zheng
Legislature	National People's Congress
• First pre-imperial dynasty	c. 2070 BCE
• First imperial dynasty	221 BCE
• Establishment of the Republic of China	1 January 1912
• Proclamation of the People's Republic	1 October
Area • Total	9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi)
• Water (%)	2.8
• 2024 estimate	1,408,280,000
• Density	147/km2 (380.7/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	$37.072 trillion
• Per capita	$26,310
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimate
• Total	$18.273 trillion
• Per capita	$12,969
Gini (2021)	35.7
HDI (2022)	0.788
Currency	Renminbi (元/¥) (CNY)
Time zone	UTC+8 (CST)

 Administratively, it consists of 33 province-level divisions, including 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities, and two special administrative regions. While Beijing serves as the capital, Shanghai stands as the country's most populous city and a leading financial hub.

Regarded as one of the world's oldest civilizations, China’s history traces back to the Paleolithic era. By the late 2nd millennium BCE, early dynastic states had emerged in the Yellow River basin. The decline of the Zhou dynasty between the 8th and 3rd centuries BCE led to the rise of advanced governance, military strategies, philosophy, literature, and historical records. In 221 BCE, the Qin dynasty unified China under its first emperor, initiating over two millennia of imperial rule, spanning dynasties such as the Han, Tang, Yuan, Ming, and Qing. China made significant contributions to global culture, including the invention of gunpowder and paper, the development of the Silk Road, and the construction of the Great Wall. However, by the late 19th century, it suffered territorial losses to European powers through a series of unequal treaties.

The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 led to the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). However, the nascent government struggled with instability, leading to internal fragmentation during the Warlord Era. The Kuomintang (KMT) sought to reunify the country through the Northern Expedition, but tensions with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) sparked the Chinese Civil War in 1927. The two factions briefly united against Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), which ended in victory for China. However, hostilities between the CCP and KMT resumed, culminating in the CCP’s victory in 1949 and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, while the Nationalist government retreated to Taiwan. The PRC initially pursued radical socialist policies, but efforts like the Great Leap Forward led to the devastating Great Chinese Famine, while the Cultural Revolution triggered widespread political and social turmoil. China distanced itself from the Soviet Union following the Sino-Soviet split and improved ties with the United States through the Shanghai Communiqué in 1972. Economic reforms initiated in 1978 shifted the country from a centrally planned economy to a market-driven one, fueling rapid economic growth. However, calls for political reform were stifled, most notably during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.

Today, China operates as a unitary one-party socialist republic under the CCP's leadership. It holds a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council, having replaced the ROC as China's official representative in 1971. The country plays a significant role in international organizations such as the AIIB, BRICS, the G20, APEC, the SCO, and the RCEP. As the world’s largest economy by purchasing power parity (PPP) and the second-largest by nominal GDP, China has established itself as a manufacturing and export powerhouse. Despite its economic success, it ranks low in indices measuring democracy, human rights, and religious freedom. Militarily, China possesses nuclear weapons, has the world’s largest standing army, and maintains the second-largest defense budget. It is recognized as a major global power and is frequently described as an emerging superpower. Renowned for its rich cultural heritage and cuisine, China boasts 59 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, ranking second globally.

History of China

Prehistoric China

Archaeological findings indicate that early hominids inhabited China as far back as 2.25 million years ago. Among the most notable discoveries is Peking Man, a Homo erectus species that used fire, dating between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago. Fossilized Homo sapiens teeth, estimated to be 125,000 to 80,000 years old, were found in Fuyan Cave. Proto-writing systems in China appeared as early as 6600 BCE in Jiahu and later in Damaidi, Dadiwan, and Banpo. Some scholars argue that symbols found in Jiahu from the 7th millennium BCE may represent the earliest known form of Chinese writing.

Early Dynastic China

According to traditional Chinese records, the Xia dynasty, founded in the late 3rd millennium BCE, marked the beginning of China’s dynastic rule. However, its existence remains debated since the earliest known references to Xia were written long after its supposed fall. Excavations of the Erlitou culture suggest it may have been the historical Xia, but this remains controversial. The Shang dynasty, which followed, is the first to have verifiable written records and archaeological evidence, ruling much of the Yellow River region from the 16th to the 11th century BCE. The oracle bone script, first appearing around 1250 BCE, is the oldest known form of written Chinese and a direct precursor to modern Chinese characters.

The Shang were succeeded by the Zhou dynasty, which ruled from the 11th to the 5th century BCE. Over time, the centralized power of the Zhou weakened, leading to the rise of independent feudal states. This fragmentation led to the Spring and Autumn period and later the Warring States period, during which seven powerful states competed for dominance.

Imperial China

Qin and Han Dynasties

In 221 BCE, the state of Qin emerged victorious from the Warring States period, uniting China under Emperor Qin Shi Huang. He standardized writing, currency, measurements, and infrastructure while expanding the empire into regions like Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. However, his rule was short-lived, and the Qin dynasty collapsed soon after his death.

The Han dynasty, established in 206 BCE, marked a golden age in Chinese history, shaping the identity of the Han Chinese people. The Han expanded China’s borders into Central Asia, Mongolia, Korea, and Vietnam and played a key role in establishing the Silk Road. Despite adopting Confucianism over Qin’s Legalist policies, many of the legal structures remained. The Han dynasty also boasted the world’s largest economy of its time.

Three Kingdoms and the Northern and Southern Dynasties

After the fall of the Han in 220 CE, China entered the turbulent Three Kingdoms period. This era ended with the rise of the Jin dynasty, which later fragmented due to internal conflicts. Northern China fell under the rule of various nomadic groups, known as the Sixteen States, until the Xianbei-led Northern Wei reunified the region. The south saw the rise of the Liu Song dynasty, leading to a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, which lasted until the Sui dynasty reestablished unity in 581 CE.

Sui, Tang, and Song Dynasties

The Sui dynasty reformed China’s governance, economy, and infrastructure, notably building the Grand Canal. However, heavy taxation and forced labor for public works led to widespread unrest, causing its downfall.

The succeeding Tang dynasty ushered in a golden age of Chinese culture, economy, and technological advancement. The empire controlled the Silk Road, facilitating trade across Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. The capital, Chang’an, became one of the world’s largest and most cosmopolitan cities. However, the An Lushan Rebellion in the 8th century severely weakened the dynasty, leading to its collapse in 907.

The Song dynasty restored order in 960, pioneering economic and cultural advancements. It was the first government to introduce paper money and establish a permanent navy. The population doubled due to agricultural innovations, and Confucianism was revitalized. However, military weaknesses made the dynasty vulnerable. In 1127, the Jin dynasty captured the Song capital, forcing the remaining Song rulers to relocate south.

Yuan Dynasty

The Mongol conquest of China began in 1205 under Genghis Khan, with his grandson, Kublai Khan, officially founding the Yuan dynasty in 1271. By 1279, the Mongols had fully subdued the Song dynasty. However, Mongol rule led to a dramatic population decline, with census records showing a drop from 120 million to 60 million people by 1300. The Yuan dynasty was overthrown in 1368 by a peasant uprising led by Zhu Yuanzhang, who established the Ming dynasty.

Ming Dynasty

Under the Ming dynasty, China saw another golden age. It developed a strong navy and a thriving economy. Admiral Zheng He led ambitious maritime expeditions, reaching as far as East Africa. Philosophers like Wang Yangming introduced new interpretations of Neo-Confucianism, promoting individualism and equality. However, economic strain due to military campaigns and natural disasters weakened the dynasty. In 1644, Beijing fell to rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, and soon after, the Manchus seized control, founding the Qing dynasty.

Qing Dynasty

The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was China’s last imperial dynasty. Despite violent transitions, including the conquest of the Ming and the Dzungar Khanate, the Qing presided over a period of territorial expansion, incorporating Tibet, Xinjiang, and Mongolia. China experienced significant population growth, surpassing 400 million by the late 18th century. While the Qing oversaw economic prosperity and a commercial boom, they also enforced strict ideological control, stifling scientific and technological advancements.

By the late Qing period, China faced internal decline and external pressure from Western powers. This led to the erosion of imperial authority, eventually culminating in the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, marking the end of over two millennia of imperial rule.

The Fall of the Qing Dynasty

By the mid-19th century, China was grappling with both external aggression and internal unrest. The Opium Wars with Britain and France forced the Qing government to sign a series of "unequal treaties," beginning with the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, which ceded Hong Kong to Britain, opened treaty ports, and granted extraterritorial rights to foreign nationals. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) further weakened Qing rule, leading to the loss of Taiwan and Korea’s independence from Chinese influence.

Domestically, uprisings such as the White Lotus Rebellion, the devastating Taiping Rebellion, and the Dungan Revolt led to the deaths of millions. Although the Self-Strengthening Movement attempted modernization efforts, repeated military defeats in the late 19th century hindered its success. Famine and emigration further strained the population, with the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879 claiming up to 13 million lives.

In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor attempted sweeping reforms to modernize the government, but his efforts were thwarted by Empress Dowager Cixi. The anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901), though initially supported by the Qing, ended in disaster when the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded Beijing, forcing China into further humiliating treaties. Cixi introduced late-stage reforms, but the damage was done. The Xinhai Revolution of 1911 led to the collapse of the Qing dynasty, and in 1912, the last emperor, Puyi, abdicated, marking the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule.

The Republic of China and World War II

On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) was founded, with Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT) as its provisional president. However, power soon shifted to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general, who briefly declared himself emperor in 1915 before public backlash forced him to resign. His death in 1916 left China politically fragmented, with warlords controlling different regions. Though the Beijing-based government was internationally recognized, real power lay with regional military leaders.

During this time, China participated in World War I, and the May Fourth Movement in 1919 sparked nationalist and anti-imperialist sentiments. In the late 1920s, the KMT, led by Chiang Kai-shek, launched the Northern Expedition to unify the country. The KMT briefly allied with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), but by 1927, tensions escalated into the Chinese Civil War. The CCP retreated to Jiangxi, establishing the Chinese Soviet Republic, only to be forced into the historic Long March to Yan’an in 1934.

Meanwhile, Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, setting the stage for a full-scale war in 1937. The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) became a brutal theater of World War II, with atrocities such as the Nanjing Massacre causing millions of deaths. Despite internal conflicts, the KMT and CCP formed a temporary alliance to resist Japan. China was recognized as one of the "Big Four" Allied powers and played a key role in the eventual defeat of Japan in 1945. Following the war, Taiwan was returned to Chinese control, though disputes over its status persist.

The Rise of the People’s Republic of China

Although China emerged victorious from World War II, it was left war-torn and economically drained. The KMT and CCP soon resumed their civil war, despite efforts at constitutional reform. By 1949, the CCP had secured control over mainland China, and on October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong declared the founding of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing. The KMT retreated to Taiwan, where they continued to claim legitimacy as the Republic of China.

The early PRC years were marked by land reforms, with millions of landlords executed in state-supported peasant movements. Initially aligned with the Soviet Union, China later distanced itself due to ideological and political differences, developing its own industrial base and nuclear weapons. Between 1950 and 1959, the PRC consolidated control over Hainan and Tibet, while the Kuomintang continued resistance in remote western regions.

Mao’s Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) aimed to rapidly industrialize China but led to catastrophic famine, causing between 15 and 55 million deaths. In 1966, he launched the Cultural Revolution, plunging the country into a decade of social and political chaos. Mao’s death in 1976 marked the end of this era, and the subsequent arrest of the Gang of Four paved the way for new leadership.

Economic Reforms and Modern China

After Mao, Deng Xiaoping emerged as China’s paramount leader in 1978, introducing sweeping economic reforms. He dismantled collectivized farming, allowed private enterprise, and opened China to global trade through Special Economic Zones (SEZs). While the economy boomed, calls for political reform were met with repression, most notably during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.

Under Jiang Zemin in the 1990s, China privatized inefficient state-owned enterprises, leading to unprecedented economic growth. The return of Hong Kong (1997) and Macau (1999) under the “one country, two systems” principle further boosted China’s international standing. In 2001, China joined the World Trade Organization, cementing its position as a global economic powerhouse.

Hu Jintao succeeded Jiang in 2002, overseeing China’s rapid rise, though environmental degradation and social inequalities became pressing issues. By 2012, Xi Jinping took power, launching an extensive anti-corruption campaign and consolidating authority. His administration has seen China expand its global influence through the Belt and Road Initiative while tightening internal controls.

Today, China remains a dominant global force, navigating economic ambitions, political challenges, and its evolving role on the world stage.

Geography of China

Landscapes and Terrain

China’s vast and diverse geography ranges from arid deserts in the north to lush subtropical forests in the south. The country is separated from much of South and Central Asia by imposing mountain ranges, including the Himalayas, Karakoram, Pamirs, and Tian Shan. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest rivers in the world, originate in the Tibetan Plateau and flow eastward toward China’s densely populated coastal regions.

China’s coastline, stretching 14,500 km (9,000 mi) along the Pacific Ocean, borders several marginal seas, including the Bohai, Yellow, East China, and South China Seas. To the north, the Eurasian Steppe connects China with Kazakhstan, historically serving as a corridor for trade and cultural exchanges.

Located between latitudes 18° and 54° N and longitudes 73° and 135° E, China’s geography is highly varied. The eastern seaboard features fertile alluvial plains, supporting some of the world’s highest population densities. In the north, the Inner Mongolian Plateau is characterized by vast grasslands, while the central-east is dominated by the deltas of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers. Southern China is defined by rolling hills and low mountain ranges. Meanwhile, the western regions are home to towering mountain ranges, plateaus, and deserts, including the Taklamakan and the Gobi. Mount Everest (8,848 m), the world’s highest peak, sits on China’s border with Nepal, while the country’s lowest point, Ayding Lake (-154 m) in the Turpan Depression, ranks as the third-lowest point on Earth.

Climate and Environmental Challenges

China’s climate varies dramatically across its vast territory, influenced by dry seasons and wet monsoons. In winter, cold and dry northern winds sweep in from high-latitude regions, while in summer, warm and moist southern winds bring rainfall from coastal areas.

One of China’s major environmental challenges is desertification, particularly the expansion of the Gobi Desert. Since the 1970s, afforestation projects like the Great Green Wall have helped mitigate sandstorms, but drought and poor agricultural practices continue to cause land degradation. Dust storms originating in northern China often spread across East Asia, affecting countries like Japan and South Korea.

Water scarcity, erosion, and pollution remain significant concerns. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas pose a risk to water supplies for hundreds of millions of people. Climate scientists suggest that to keep global warming below 1.5°C, China must phase out coal-fired power generation without carbon capture by 2045. Current policies indicate that China’s greenhouse gas emissions may peak by 2025 and return to 2022 levels by 2030, though this trajectory could still contribute to a three-degree global temperature rise.

China is a global agricultural powerhouse, leading the world in the production of rice, wheat, tomatoes, grapes, and other crops. However, official agricultural productivity figures are often questioned due to inflated reports from lower government levels. In 2021, China accounted for 12% of global permanent meadows and pastures, and 8% of global cropland.

Biodiversity

As one of 17 megadiverse countries, China spans two major biogeographic realms: the Palearctic and Indomalayan. With over 34,687 known species of animals and vascular plants, it ranks as the world’s third-most biodiverse country, following Brazil and Colombia. China is a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity and has implemented a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

China is home to 551 mammal species, 1,221 bird species, 424 reptile species, and 333 amphibian species, making it a global biodiversity hotspot. However, wildlife faces significant threats from habitat destruction, pollution, and poaching for traditional medicine and fur. Over 840 species are endangered, with conservation efforts focused on species like the giant panda, one of China’s most iconic animals. As of 2005, China had 2,349 nature reserves covering 15% of its land area.

Forests in China range from cold coniferous forests in the north, which support moose, Asian black bears, and diverse bird species, to dense subtropical forests in the south, which host many rare endemic plants. Though tropical rainforests are limited to Yunnan and Hainan, they contain a quarter of China’s total biodiversity. The country is also home to over 10,000 recorded species of fungi.

Environmental Policies and Renewable Energy

China has faced severe environmental degradation due to its rapid industrialization, with issues such as air pollution, deforestation, and water contamination becoming critical challenges. While environmental laws, such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law, exist, enforcement has historically been weak due to economic priorities. China has the world’s second-highest air pollution-related death toll after India, with approximately 1 million deaths annually.

Despite being the world’s largest carbon emitter, China’s per capita CO2 emissions 

(8 tons) remain significantly lower than those of countries like the United States (16.1 tons) and Australia (16.8 tons). China has aggressively tackled air pollution in recent years, leading to notable improvements in air quality. In 2020, the government committed to reaching peak emissions before 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2060, a goal that could significantly lower global temperature projections.

As a global leader in renewable energy investment, China poured $546 billion into clean energy projects in 2022 alone. The country dominates the global production of solar panels, wind turbines, and batteries. By 2023, China’s energy mix consisted of:

• 60.5% from coal (world’s largest producer)
• 13.2% from hydroelectric power (largest globally)
• 9.4% from wind energy (largest globally)
• 6.2% from solar energy (largest globally)
• 4.6% from nuclear energy (second-largest globally)
• 3.3% from natural gas
• 2.2% from bioenergy

In total, 31% of China’s electricity came from renewable sources in 2023. However, China remains the world’s largest importer of crude oil, with significant reliance on Russian energy supplies. Despite ongoing environmental concerns, China has significantly expanded its forest coverage, growing from 10% in 1949 to 25% in 2024.

Political Geography and Territorial Disputes

China ranks as the world’s third-largest country by land area, covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometers (3.7 million square miles). It has the world’s longest combined land border, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi), and a coastline of about 14,500 km (9,000 mi).

China shares land borders with 14 countries, spanning multiple regions:

• Southeast Asia: Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar
• South Asia: India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan
• Central Asia: Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan
• Northeast Asia: Russia, Mongolia, North Korea

China is also separated from Bangladesh and Thailand by narrow geographical corridors and shares maritime boundaries with Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.

Over the years, China has settled border disputes with 12 of its 14 neighbors, often through diplomatic negotiations and territorial compromises. However, unresolved disputes persist with India and Bhutan. Additionally, China remains entangled in maritime disputes in the East China Sea and South China Sea, particularly over the Senkaku Islands and the South China Sea Islands.

Government and Politics

Political System

China is a one-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which adheres to "socialism with Chinese characteristics," a Marxist framework adapted to China's unique conditions. The country's constitution describes the People's Republic of China (PRC) as a "socialist state under a people’s democratic dictatorship," led by the working class in alliance with peasants. It follows the principle of democratic centralism, emphasizing centralized authority while claiming to incorporate democratic elements.

Although the PRC officially promotes terms such as "socialist consultative democracy" and "whole-process people's democracy," it is widely regarded as an authoritarian one-party system. The government imposes strict restrictions on press freedom, assembly, religious practice, and internet access. China is consistently ranked among the lowest in global democracy indexes, classified as an "authoritarian regime" by the Economist Intelligence Unit, where it ranked 148th out of 167 countries in 2023. However, some scholars argue that China’s governance includes consultation mechanisms that are not fully captured by the term "authoritarianism."

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

The CCP is the founding and ruling party of the PRC, wielding ultimate political authority. Its highest governing body is the National Congress, held every five years, where representatives elect the Central Committee. This committee, in turn, elects the Politburo, Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), and the General Secretary, who serves as the country's top leader. The General Secretary holds the most power in China, informally referred to as the paramount leader. Since November 15, 2012, this position has been held by Xi Jinping.

At the local level, CCP officials outrank their government counterparts, meaning that a provincial CCP secretary holds more power than a governor, and a city’s CCP secretary is more influential than its mayor.

Structure of the Government

China’s government operates under the direct control of the CCP, with nearly all senior officials being party members. The National People’s Congress (NPC), China’s highest legislative body, consists of nearly 3,000 members. Though it is constitutionally the "highest organ of state power," it is often described as a rubber-stamp legislature, as all major decisions are predetermined by the CCP. The NPC Standing Committee, a smaller body of around 150 members elected from NPC delegates, meets more frequently to oversee legislation. Elections are indirect and non-competitive, with all nominations controlled by the CCP.

The President of China, currently Xi Jinping, is elected by the NPC but serves largely as a ceremonial figure. However, because Xi also holds the positions of General Secretary of the CCP and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, he is China’s paramount leader with full control over the government and military.

The Premier, currently Li Qiang, serves as head of government and oversees the State Council, which functions as China’s cabinet. The Premier is nominated by the President and confirmed by the NPC, typically being the second- or third-ranking official in the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The State Council includes vice premiers, state councilors, and heads of ministries, responsible for the day-to-day administration of government affairs.

Another key political body is the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), which serves as an advisory group within China’s "united front" system. This system is designed to incorporate non-CCP voices while maintaining CCP dominance. The CPPCC, chaired by Wang Huning, plays a role in shaping policies but does not have legislative power.

Governance and Policy Implementation

China’s governance is characterized by strong political centralization but significant economic decentralization. The central government often allows local governments to experiment with policies before implementing them nationally. Policies are developed through a trial-and-feedback process, where regional governments test programs and central leaders adjust them based on results. Instead of drafting detailed laws from the start, national leaders typically observe local innovations before formalizing regulations at the national level.

This governance model allows for flexibility and adaptation but also reinforces centralized control, ensuring that all decisions ultimately align with the CCP’s directives.

Foreign Relations

Global Diplomatic Standing

China maintains diplomatic relations with 179 United Nations member states and operates embassies in 174 countries, making its diplomatic network one of the world’s largest. Since 1971, the People's Republic of China (PRC) has been the recognized representative of China in the United Nations, replacing the Republic of China (Taiwan) and securing a permanent seat on the UN Security Council.

China is an active member of numerous international organizations, including the G20, Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), BRICS, East Asia Summit, and APEC. Previously a leading force in the Non-Aligned Movement, China continues to advocate for developing nations in global forums.

Taiwan and the One-China Principle

China adheres to the One-China Principle, asserting that there is only one sovereign China and that Taiwan is an inseparable part of it. Countries that recognize the PRC often maintain unique "One-China policies", with some explicitly supporting China’s claim over Taiwan, while others, such as the United States and Japan, merely acknowledge the claim. China has consistently opposed foreign diplomatic engagements with Taiwan and has strongly protested arms sales to the island. Since China’s recognition in the UN in 1971, most countries have switched their diplomatic recognition from Taiwan to the PRC.

Key Diplomatic Relations

China's foreign policy is influenced by Premier Zhou Enlai’s Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, emphasizing non-interference and respect for sovereignty. This approach has led to close ties with countries that are often criticized by the West, including Sudan, North Korea, and Iran. China also maintains strong diplomatic and economic relations with Russia, with both nations frequently aligning their positions in the UN Security Council.

Relations with the United States are complex, marked by extensive trade and economic interdependence but deep political and ideological differences.

Since the early 2000s, China has significantly expanded its influence in Africa, engaging in large-scale infrastructure and trade projects. It has also strengthened ties with the European Union, becoming its largest trading partner for goods. China is increasing its presence in Central Asia, the South Pacific, and South America, maintaining strong trade links with ASEAN nations and major economies like Brazil, Chile, and Argentina.

Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)

Launched in 2013, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is a massive global infrastructure project aimed at enhancing trade and connectivity. With annual funding between $50–100 billion, it is one of the most ambitious development programs in modern history. By 2020, BRI had expanded to 138 countries and 30 international organizations, focusing on transportation, energy, and maritime trade routes. However, concerns over unsustainable debt have led to calls for debt relief from participating nations.

Military and Defense

China’s People's Liberation Army (PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries, undergoing rapid modernization in recent decades. It has faced accusations of technology theft from other nations.

Structure and Capabilities

As of 2024, the PLA consists of four main branches:

• Ground Force (PLAGF)
• Navy (PLAN) – second-largest navy by tonnage
• Air Force (PLAAF)
• Rocket Force (PLARF) – controls nuclear and missile capabilities

Additionally, the PLA has four independent units: Aerospace Force, Cyberspace Force, Information Support Force, and Joint Logistics Support Force.

With nearly 2.2 million active personnel, the PLA is the world’s largest standing army. China possesses the third-largest nuclear arsenal and has significantly increased its military spending. In 2023, its official military budget stood at $224 billion, but independent estimates suggest real spending reached $296 billion, accounting for 12% of global military expenditures.

The Central Military Commission (CMC) oversees the PLA, with its chairman serving as China’s commander-in-chief. Though the CMC officially exists as both a state and party organization, its membership is nearly identical, reinforcing CCP control over the military.

Human Rights and Sociopolitical Issues

China’s human rights record has faced extensive criticism from international organizations, foreign governments, and human rights advocates. Reports highlight detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, political suppression, and restrictions on free speech, religious practice, and press freedom.

Political and Social Restrictions

While the Chinese constitution guarantees freedom of speech, press, religion, and fair trials, these rights are not effectively protected in practice. The CCP imposes strict censorship, among the most comprehensive in the world, blocking access to foreign news, social media, and political dissent. Surveillance technologies, including facial recognition and internet monitoring, are widely used to control public behavior.

China has consistently ranked among the lowest in global freedom rankings, with Freedom House labeling it "not free" and Amnesty International documenting widespread abuses.

Xinjiang and Uyghur Crackdown

China has been accused of committing genocide and crimes against humanity in Xinjiang, where over one million Uyghurs and ethnic minorities have been detained in "re-education camps" since 2017. Reports indicate that detainees face political indoctrination, forced labor, sterilization, and torture. Western governments and human rights organizations have condemned these actions, with some labeling them as genocide under UN definitions.

Tibet and Hong Kong

Tibet has long faced heavy government restrictions, with religious suppression and political crackdowns limiting freedoms. In Hong Kong, Beijing imposed a national security law in 2020, leading to widespread arrests of pro-democracy activists and a significant decline in political freedoms.

Religious Freedom and Social Issues

China ranks among the most restrictive countries in terms of religious freedom. While official state-sanctioned religious groups exist, unauthorized religious activity is frequently suppressed. The government has targeted Christians, Falun Gong practitioners, and Tibetan Buddhists, imposing restrictions on worship and religious expression.

In 2017 and 2020, the Pew Research Center ranked China among the worst countries for government-imposed religious restrictions, though it reported lower levels of social hostilities related to religion.

Forced Labor and Surveillance

Human rights organizations estimate that over 3.8 million people in China live under modern slavery conditions, including victims of forced labor, human trafficking, and state-imposed work programs. While China formally abolished re-education through labor (laojiao) camps in 2013, forced labor practices persist, particularly in detention facilities. The Laogai (reform through labor) system continues to operate, with over 1,400 labor camps and detention centers reported as of 2008.

Public Perception of Government

Despite human rights concerns, domestic approval of the Chinese government remains high. Surveys suggest that economic stability, social security, and rising living standards contribute to public satisfaction.

• World Values Survey (2022): 91% of Chinese respondents expressed confidence in their government.
• Harvard University (2020): Found that citizen satisfaction had increased since 2003, rating China’s governance as more effective than ever.

Economic growth, poverty reduction, and government responsiveness to crises are often cited as key reasons for this support.

Economy of China

Economic Overview

China has the world’s second-largest economy by nominal GDP and the largest economy by purchasing power parity (PPP). As of 2022, it accounted for approximately 18% of global GDP. Since introducing market-oriented reforms in 1978, China has experienced rapid economic growth, consistently exceeding 6% annually for decades. According to the World Bank, China's GDP surged from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.96 trillion by 2022.

China is classified as an upper-middle-income country and ranks 64th globally in GDP per capita. It is home to 135 of the world’s 500 largest companies, and as of 2024, it boasts the second-largest equity and futures markets and the third-largest bond market.

Historically, China was one of the world’s dominant economic powers for much of the past two millennia. While its fortunes fluctuated over time, modern economic reforms have transformed it into a global trade and manufacturing powerhouse.

Key Economic Sectors

China's economy is highly diversified, with major strengths in:

• Manufacturing: The world's largest manufacturing hub since 2010, surpassing the U.S.
• Technology & Electronics: The second-largest high-tech manufacturer (after the U.S.), leading in semiconductors and telecommunications.
• Retail & E-commerce: The second-largest retail market and the global leader in e-commerce, accounting for 37% of global e-commerce sales in 2021.
• Automobiles & Electric Vehicles: China produces and consumes half of the world’s electric vehicles (EVs) and dominates battery production.
• Energy & Green Technology: A global leader in solar panels, wind turbines, and electric battery production.
• Finance: Home to three of the world’s ten largest stock exchanges (Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Shenzhen).
• Real Estate & Infrastructure: A crucial driver of GDP but prone to debt crises and housing market fluctuations.
• Mining & Heavy Industries: A leading producer of steel, coal, and rare earth elements.

China operates under a state-capitalist system, where strategic industries like energy and infrastructure remain state-controlled, but the private sector has expanded significantly, contributing over 60% of GDP.

Tourism and Cultural Heritage

China is one of the world’s most visited countries.

• International Visitors (2019): 65.7 million (4th highest globally).
• Domestic Tourism (2019): 6 billion trips.
• UNESCO World Heritage Sites: 56, ranking 2nd globally (after Italy).

China's diverse cultural heritage, iconic landmarks like the Great Wall and Forbidden City, and modern urban attractions continue to attract millions of tourists annually.

Wealth and Income Distribution

China holds 18.6% of global wealth, making it the second-richest nation after the U.S..

• Poverty Reduction: Since 1978, China has lifted 800 million people out of extreme poverty, a feat unmatched in history.
• Income Growth: The average standard of living has increased 26 times since 1978.
• Income Inequality: Despite economic progress, inequality remains high, with wealth concentrated in coastal cities. The Gini coefficient was 0.357 in 2021, showing some decline in inequality over the 2010s.

China has the world’s largest middle class, which grew to 500 million people by 2024.

Billionaires and Millionaires

• Billionaires (2024): 473 (2nd highest after the U.S.).
• Millionaires (2024): 6.2 million (2nd highest globally).
• Women Billionaires: 85 Chinese women billionaires (two-thirds of the global total).

China also overtook the U.S. in 2019 as the country with the highest number of people possessing over $110,000 in personal wealth.

China in the Global Economy

Trade and Foreign Investment

• World’s largest trading nation since 2013.
• Largest trading partner for 124 countries as of 2016.
• Foreign exchange reserves (March 2024): $3.246 trillion, the world’s largest.
• Foreign Direct Investment (FDI, 2022): $180 billion (one of the highest in the world).
• China’s Outward FDI (2023): $147.9 billion, with many major acquisitions abroad.

Currency and Global Finance

The renminbi (RMB) has been gradually internationalized:

• IMF Special Drawing Rights currency.
• World’s 4th most traded currency (2023).
• China aims to reduce reliance on the U.S. dollar, though capital controls limit full currency convertibility.

Economic Challenges

• Debt concerns: Local government and corporate debt remain high.
• Trade disputes: The U.S. has accused China of currency manipulation, IP theft, and counterfeit manufacturing.
• Aging population: Shrinking workforce threatens long-term economic growth.

Science, Technology, and Innovation

Historical Contributions

China was a global leader in science and technology for centuries, pioneering papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder. However, it fell behind Western nations during the Great Divergence.

Modern China revived its scientific ambitions in the 20th century, investing heavily in research and technology.

Modern Scientific Advancements

• R&D Spending (2024): $496 billion (~2.7% of GDP), closing in on U.S. levels.
• Global Innovation Index (2024): Ranked 11th (up from 35th in 2013).
• Scientific Publications: Largest producer of research papers since 2016.
• Supercomputers: Among the fastest in the world.

China dominates patents, utility models, trademarks, and creative exports, surpassing the U.S. in patent filin

gs in 2018 and 2019.

Space Program and Lunar Missions

China’s space ambitions have grown rapidly since launching its first satellite in 1970.

• 2003: Became the third country to send humans to space (Shenzhou 5).
• 2013: Yutu rover landed on the Moon.
• 2019: First far-side Moon landing (Chang’e 4).
• 2021: First Mars rover landing (Zhurong).
• 2022: Completed its Tiangong space station.
• 2023: Announced plans for human Moon landing by 2030.
• 2024: Chang’e 6 mission conducted the first far-side lunar sample return.

China is developing a super-heavy rocket (Long March 10) and a new lunar lander to support its upcoming Moon missions.

Infrastructure in China

Overview

China has undergone a decades-long infrastructure boom, leading to some of the most advanced and extensive infrastructure networks in the world. The country holds numerous global records, including:

• World’s largest high-speed rail network
• Most supertall skyscrapers (300+ meters)
• Largest power plant (Three Gorges Dam)
• Most extensive ultra-high-voltage transmission network
• Largest global satellite navigation system (BeiDou)

Telecommunications

China is the largest telecommunications market in the world, with over 1.7 billion mobile subscribers and more than 1.1 billion internet users as of 2024, covering 78.6% of the population.

Mobile Networks and Internet

• World’s largest 4G network: Over 1 billion users (40% of the global total by 2018).
• 5G leadership: By 2023, China had 810 million 5G users and 3.38 million 5G base stations installed, making it the world’s largest 5G network.
• Major telecom providers: China Mobile, China Unicom, and China Telecom dominate the industry.

Satellite Navigation (BeiDou)

China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) began offering commercial services in 2012 and achieved global coverage by 2018, making it the third completed global satellite system after GPS and GLONASS.

Transportation

Road Network and Automobiles

• World’s longest expressway system: 177,000 km (110,000 mi) as of 2022.
• Largest automobile market: China has been the world’s top auto producer and seller since surpassing the U.S. in 2009.
• Largest car exporter: China became the world’s top car exporter in 2023.
• Urban mobility: Despite increasing car ownership, bicycles remain popular, with 200 million bikes in use.

Railway and High-Speed Rail (HSR)

China’s rail network is among the busiest in the world, handling one-quarter of global rail traffic.

• Total railway length (2023): 159,000 km (98,798 mi) (2nd longest globally).
• High-speed rail (HSR) network: 45,000 km (27,962 mi) of dedicated tracks (longest in the world).
• Fastest conventional HSR trains: 350 km/h (217 mph) (Beijing–Shanghai and Beijing–Guangzhou routes).
• Shanghai Maglev Train: World’s fastest commercial train (431 km/h or 268 mph).
• Annual HSR ridership (2019): Over 2.3 billion passengers, making it the world’s busiest.
• Urban mass transit: 55 Chinese cities have metro systems, with Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou operating the world’s longest networks.

Aviation and Airports

China’s aviation industry is mostly state-owned, with three major airlines (Air China, China Eastern, and China Southern) controlling 71% of the market.

• Air passenger traffic (1990–2017): Increased from 16.6 million to 551.2 million.
• Total airports (2024): 259.

Ports and Inland Waterways

• World’s busiest ports: 15 of the 50 largest container ports are in China.
• Port of Shanghai: World’s busiest container port.
• Inland waterways: 27,700 km (17,212 mi), the 6th longest in the world.

Demographics of China

Population Trends

• 2020 Census Population: 1.41 billion.
• Age distribution (2020):
  • 0-14 years old: 17.95%
  • 15-59 years old: 63.35%
  • 60+ years old: 18.7%
• Population growth rate (2010-2020): 0.53% per year.

In 2023, China’s population declined for the first time since 1961, decreasing by 850,000 people.

Birth Policies and Fertility Rates

• One-child policy (1979-2015): Strict limits on births, with exceptions for rural families and ethnic minorities.
• Two-child policy (2016-2021): Introduced due to aging concerns.
• Three-child policy (2021): Further relaxed restrictions.
• All birth limits removed (2021).
• Fertility rate (2023): 1.09 births per woman (among the world’s lowest).

Gender Imbalance

• Sex ratio at birth (2020): 51.2% male, 48.8% female.
• Gender preference: A traditional preference for male children led to an increase in female child adoptions, particularly in the 1990s and 2000s.
• Foreign adoptions: Declined after 2007 due to tighter regulations.

Urbanization and Major Cities

China has urbanized rapidly over the past decades.

• Urban population (1980): 20%.
• Urban population (2024): 67%.
• Cities with over 1 million people: 160+.
• Megacities (10M+ people): 17, including:
  • Shanghai, Beijing, Chongqing, Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Wuhan, Tianjin, and Xi’an.
• Shanghai: China’s largest urban area.
• Chongqing: Largest city proper, with 30+ million people.

China continues to develop mass transit systems, smart cities, and mega-infrastructure projects to accommodate its expanding urban population.

Ethnic Groups, Language, Religion, and Culture in China

Ethnic Groups

China officially recognizes 56 ethnic groups, collectively known as Zhonghua Minzu. The Han Chinese make up over 91% of the population, making them the largest ethnic group in the world. Han Chinese are the majority in all provinces except Tibet, Xinjiang, Linxia, and several autonomous prefectures like Xishuangbanna.

Ethnic minorities, comprising less than 10% of the total population, have grown at a faster rate than the Han population. Between 2010 and 2020, the Han population increased by 4.93%, while the combined minority population grew by 10.26%. The 2020 census recorded 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China.

Languages

China is home to 292 living languages, with Mandarin Chinese being the most widely spoken.

Major Language Families in China:

1. Sinitic (Sino-Tibetan) – Mandarin (spoken by 80% of the population), along with Jin, Wu, Min, Yue (Cantonese), Hakka, Xiang, Gan, Hui, and Ping.
2. Tibeto-Burman – Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, and Qiang (spoken in Tibet and Yunnan).
3. Tai-Kadai – Zhuang, Dong, Thai, and Sui (spoken in southwestern China).
4. Hmong-Mien – Miao and Yao languages.
5. Altaic – Mongolian, Manchu, and Turkic languages like Uyghur, Kazakh, and Kyrgyz.
6. Indo-European – Sarikoli, spoken by Tajiks in Xinjiang.
7. Austronesian – Indigenous languages spoken in Taiwan.

Official and Regional Languages:

• Standard Chinese (Mandarin) is the de facto national language and serves as a lingua franca.
• Uyghur is constitutionally recognized for government services in Xinjiang.
• Tibetan, Mongolian, and Zhuang are used in autonomous regions.

Religion in China

Religious Landscape

China officially guarantees freedom of religion, but state control over religious practices remains strict. The government is officially atheist, with religious affairs overseen by the National Religious Affairs Administration.

Traditional Beliefs and Major Religions:

• Chinese folk religion (70% of population) – Includes Confucianism, Taoism, and various ancestral and nature-based beliefs.
• Buddhism (33.4%) – The most widespread institutional religion.
• Taoism (19.6%) – Indigenous Chinese philosophy and religious practice.
• Other folk religions (17.7%) – Worship of deities like the Yellow Emperor, Guandi, and Mazu.
• Christianity (2.5%) – Catholic and Protestant groups, often restricted.
• Islam (1.6%) – Practiced by Hui, Uyghur, and Kazakh communities.

China has also promoted Buddhism globally and supported the revival of folk religions as a form of cultural heritage.

Education in China

Education System

Education is compulsory for 9 years, covering primary (6 years) and junior secondary school (3 years).

• Gaokao: The highly competitive national university entrance exam.
• Vocational Education: Over 10 million students graduate from vocational colleges each year.
• Senior Secondary Education: In 2023, 91.8% of students continued to high school, and 60.2% went on to higher education.

Higher Education and Universities

• World’s largest education system: 291 million students and 18.92 million teachers (2023).
• Education spending (2020): $817 billion (up from $50 billion in 2003).
• China’s literacy rate (2020): 97% (up from 20% in 1949).
• Number of universities (2023): 3,074 universities with 47.6 million students enrolled.
• Top universities: Tsinghua University, Peking University (ranked among the best in Asia).
• C9 League: China’s equivalent to the Ivy League.

China has more top-ranked universities than any other country except the U.S. and U.K.

Healthcare in China

Healthcare System

• Government oversight: Managed by the National Health Commission.
• Health insurance coverage (2022): 95% of the population.
• Healthcare spending: $124 billion reform campaign (2009-2011) significantly improved medical access.
• Life expectancy (2023): 78+ years.
• Infant mortality rate (2021): 5 per 1,000 births.

Public Health Issues

• Air pollution: 1.2 million premature deaths annually (2010 study).
• Smoking: China has hundreds of millions of smokers.
• Obesity: Rising rates, especially in urban youth.
• COVID-19 Pandemic: Strict public health measures abandoned in December 2022 after protests.

Culture and Society

Architecture

Chinese architecture has influenced East Asian styles for centuries.

• Bilateral symmetry: Common in palaces, temples, and homes.
• Traditional styles: Pagodas, courtyard houses (Siheyuan), and stilt houses.
• Modern skyscrapers: China has the most supertall buildings in the world.

Literature

• Classical texts: I Ching, Shujing, and Confucian classics.
• Classical fiction: The Four Great Classical Novels – Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, and Dream of the Red Chamber.
• Modern literature: Authors like Lu Xun and Mo Yan (2012 Nobel Prize winner).

Cinema

• First Chinese film (1905): Dingjun Mountain.
• Largest cinema market in the world (2020).
• Top-grossing films: The Battle at Lake Changjin, Wolf Warrior 2, Hi, Mom.

Cuisine

China’s "Eight Major Cuisines" vary by region:

1. Sichuan – Spicy and bold flavors.
2. Cantonese – Dim sum and seafood.
3. Jiangsu – Sweet and refined.
4. Shandong – Fresh seafood and strong flavors.
5. Fujian – Soups and seafood.
6. Hunan – Spicy and sour dishes.
7. Anhui – Rustic, game-heavy cuisine.
8. Zhejiang – Light and delicate flavors.

• Staples: Rice (south) and wheat-based foods (north).
• Meat: Pork accounts for 75% of total meat consumption.

Sports and Fitness

• Traditional sports: Archery, swordplay, cuju (ancient football).
• Popular sports: Basketball, table tennis, badminton, and martial arts.
• China’s NBA influence: Yao Ming and China’s huge basketball fanbase.
• Olympics:
  • Hosted 2008 Summer Olympics (Beijing).
  • First country to host both Summer and Winter Olympics (2022).
  • 231 medals at the 2012 Summer Paralympics (most overall).

Fashion and Traditional Clothing

• Hanfu revival: Traditional Han Chinese clothing movement.
• Qipao (Cheongsam): Popular women’s attire.
• China Fashion Week: National-level fashion event.

References