Space Exploration Technologies Corp., better known as SpaceX, is an American aerospace manufacturer and space transportation company headquartered at the Starbase facility near Brownsville, Texas. Founded in 2002 by Elon Musk, the company has revolutionized space travel with advancements in rocket propulsion, reusable launch vehicles, human spaceflight, and satellite constellation technology. As of 2024, SpaceX is the world's leading space launch provider, with its launch frequency surpassing both private competitors and national space programs, including that of China.

Trade name	SpaceX
Company type	Private
Industry	Space Telecommunications
Founded	March 14, 2002 (22 years ago) in El Segundo, California, U.S.
Founder	Elon Musk
Headquarters	SpaceX Starbase, Cameron County, Texas ,United States
Key people	Elon Musk (CEO, Chair & CTO) Gwynne Shotwe (President & COO)
Products	Launch vehicles Dragon capsules Starshield
Revenue	US$4.6 billion (2022)
Net income	US$−559 million (2022)
Owner	Elon Musk (42% equity; 79% voting control)
Number of employees	13,000+ (September 2023)
Subsidiaries	Starlink Swarm Technologies Pioneer Aerospace
Website	spacex.com

SpaceX's goal is to reduce space launch costs and enable the establishment of a sustainable colony on Mars. The company faced significant challenges in its early years, including near bankruptcy in 2008. However, the successful launch of the Falcon 1 rocket, after three failed attempts, marked a turning point. This success paved the way for the development of the Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon spacecraft, which were used to fulfill NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) contracts. By 2012, SpaceX had completed its COTS test flights and began delivering Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) to the International Space Station (ISS).

In parallel,  SpaceX worked on making the Falcon 9’s first stage reusable. The company achieved its first successful landing of a Falcon 9 booster in 2015 and followed with the first re-flight of a recovered booster in 2017. In 2018,  SpaceX launched the Falcon Heavy, a more powerful version of Falcon 9, marking the completion of a decade-long development process. As of October 2024, SpaceX has successfully landed and re-flown Falcon 9 boosters over 330 times, with launches occurring 1–2 times per week.

SpaceX has since diversified its business operations. In 2019, it launched the first operational satellite of its Starlink internet constellation, which has since become a major revenue generator for the company. Starlink's success laid the foundation for the Starshield military satellite initiative. In 2020, SpaceX began crewed missions using its Dragon 2 capsules under NASA’s Commercial Crew Program, marking a milestone in private spaceflight. The company is also developing Starship, the largest launch vehicle ever conceived, which aims to fully realize its vision of a fully reusable and adaptable spacecraft.

SpaceX is involved in NASA's Artemis program, developing the human lander for lunar missions. Additionally, the company is advancing its Polaris program to develop a new space suit and astronaut system. SpaceX remains privately held, with an estimated revenue of over $10 billion in 2024.

History of SpaceX

2001–2004: Founding

In early 2001, Elon Musk met Robert Zubrin and donated $100,000 to the Mars Society, joining its board of directors for a brief period. Musk presented a plan for the Mars Oasis project, aiming to land a greenhouse on Mars to grow plants. Initially, he tried to acquire a Dnepr launch vehicle for the project through contacts in Russia but encountered difficulties. After a failed attempt in Moscow, Musk conceived the idea of starting a company that could build affordable rockets.

By early 2002, Musk founded SpaceX, assembling a team to develop low-cost, reliable rockets using a vertically integrated approach. The company was initially headquartered in El Segundo, California, and its first employees were recruited from nearby corporations such as TRW and Boeing. Musk’s ambition was to reduce the cost of space access by a factor of ten.

2005–2009: Falcon 1 and First Orbital Launches

SpaceX's first orbital launch vehicle, Falcon 1, was developed with internal funding. The small-lift, expendable rocket had a development cost of approximately $90–100 million. In 2004, SpaceX protested NASA's sole-source contract to Kistler Aerospace, leading to the formation of NASA’s COTS program. By 2006, SpaceX secured a $396 million contract from NASA to provide cargo resupply services for the International Space Station (ISS).

Despite three failed launches between 2006 and 2008, the company achieved its first successful launch of Falcon 1 on September 28, 2008. This success, along with NASA’s first Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract worth $1.6 billion, helped SpaceX survive its financial difficulties and focus on the development of the Falcon 9 rocket.

2010–2012: Falcon 9, Dragon, and NASA Contracts

Following the success of Falcon 1, SpaceX accelerated the development of Falcon 9, a larger, reusable rocket. The first launch of Falcon 9 occurred in June 2010, carrying a mockup of the Dragon spacecraft. In December 2010, Dragon became the first commercial spacecraft to complete an orbit and return to Earth. By 2012, SpaceX had successfully delivered cargo to the ISS with Dragon, and the company had received NASA contracts to develop a crewed version of Dragon.

2013–2015: Commercial Launches and Growth

SpaceX's first commercial mission occurred in 2013, and in 2014, the company won nine out of 20 available global launch contracts. SpaceX’s entry into the commercial space market pressured competitors, such as United Launch Alliance, by offering significantly lower launch costs. In 2015, SpaceX raised $1 billion in funding, increasing its valuation to $12 billion. This period also saw the development of Starlink, a satellite constellation to provide global broadband.

2015–2017: Reusability Milestones

SpaceX achieved several milestones in rocket reusability during this period. In December 2015, the company successfully landed and recovered the Falcon 9’s first stage. In 2016, SpaceX became the first company to land a booster on an autonomous spaceport drone ship in the ocean. By 2017, SpaceX had achieved the first successful re-launch of a recovered Falcon 9 rocket.

2017–2018: Leading Global Commercial Launch Provider

By 2017, SpaceX had a 45% global market share in commercial launches, cementing its position as the leading global launch provider. In addition, the company began working on the development of the Boring Company, a tunnel construction project, which was spun off into a separate entity in 2018. SpaceX continued to dominate the launch market, and by 2018, it had over $12 billion in contracts on its manifest.

Since 2019: Starship, Crewed Launches, and Starlink

In 2019, SpaceX raised $1.33 billion, increasing its valuation to $33.3 billion. This funding was used to accelerate the development of Starship, a next-generation launch vehicle, and the expansion of Starlink, the company’s satellite constellation. By 2021, SpaceX’s valuation reached $74 billion after a major $1.6 billion funding round.

The company also began launching crewed missions in partnership with NASA, and in 2021,SpaceX won a key contract to support NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to return astronauts to the Moon. SpaceX continued to enhance Starlink, working with tech giants Google Cloud and Microsoft Azure to provide on-ground services.

2024: Headquarters Move from California to Texas

In 2024, Elon Musk announced that SpaceX would move its headquarters from Hawthorne, California, to SpaceX  Starbase in Brownsville, Texas. The move was prompted by a new California law, which Musk cited as detrimental to families and businesses. Although symbolic, the headquarters move is expected to have minimal impact on SpaceX’s operations in the short term. The company’s headquarters will remain in Texas, while the California facility continues to support Falcon launch vehicle development.

Polaris Dawn Mission and Private Spacewalk

In 2024, SpaceX’s Polaris Dawn mission achieved a major milestone in commercial space exploration with the first-ever private spacewalk, marking a significant advancement in human spaceflight.

Starship Development and Testing

SpaceX's Starship is a fully reusable spacecraft designed for large-scale human and cargo transport to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. It is the largest and most powerful rocket ever built, with a payload capacity exceeding 100 tons. Starship's development began in 2019, with prototypes constructed and tested at SpaceX's South Texas launch site. The first orbital flight test on April 20, 2023, ended in a mid-air explosion, with multiple engine failures during ascent. Despite this, SpaceX considered the test a success, as valuable data was gathered. Following this, there were delays due to regulatory hurdles, with the second flight test on November 18, 2023, also ending in an explosion. The third flight test on March 14, 2024, saw Starship reach its planned suborbital trajectory but ended in a failure during re-entry. The fourth and fifth tests took place in mid-2024, with notable achievements, including the first successful tower catch of the Super Heavy booster. The seventh test flight on January 16, 2025, resulted in another failure when the upper stage exploded during ascent.

Crewed Launches

In May 2020, SpaceX achieved a significant milestone by launching two NASA astronauts, Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken, aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft. This marked the first time a private company sent astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS) and the first U.S. crewed orbital launch in nine years. The launch took place from Kennedy Space Center’s Launch Complex 39A.

Starlink and Satellites

SpaceX launched its Starlink satellite constellation in May 2019, with the goal of providing global broadband internet service. By 2022, Starlink had deployed over 6,000 satellites, making it the largest commercial satellite network in orbit. In July 2021, SpaceX acquired Swarm Technologies, a company developing a low Earth orbit satellite network for Internet of Things (IoT) communications, for $524 million. In December 2022, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) granted approval for SpaceX to launch up to 7,500 next-generation satellites to enhance its Starlink network’s capabilities.

Hardware

Launch Vehicles

SpaceX has developed a variety of launch vehicles, including Falcon 1, Falcon 9, and Falcon Heavy, and is working on the Starship system for future space missions.

Falcon 1 was a small-lift rocket capable of placing several hundred kilograms into low Earth orbit. It made five launches between 2006 and 2009, with two successful missions. The Falcon 1 was notable as the first privately funded, liquid-fueled rocket to reach orbit.

Falcon 9 is a medium-lift launch vehicle, capable of delivering up to 22,800 kilograms to orbit. It competes with other rockets like Delta IV and Atlas V. Falcon 9 has undergone multiple upgrades, with the first version reaching orbit in 2010. The current Block 5 version, operational since 2018, is designed for rapid reusability, with a first stage that can be recovered and flown again.

Falcon Heavy is a heavy-lift vehicle capable of delivering up to 63,800 kg to Low Earth orbit (LEO) or 26,700 kg to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). It uses three Falcon 9 first-stage cores, totaling 27 Merlin 1D engines. The Falcon Heavy successfully launched its inaugural mission in 2018, sending Elon Musk's personal Tesla Roadster into space.

Both Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy are certified for National Security Space Launches (NSSL). As of February 2025, these vehicles have completed 452 launches, with a high success rate.

Starship is an ongoing development project, aiming to become a fully reusable, super-heavy lift launch system. It consists of two stages: the Super Heavy first stage and the Starship second stage. Intended to replace the current Falcon vehicles, Starship is designed for missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

Rocket Engines

SpaceX has developed several rocket engines for use in its launch vehicles:

Merlin is a family of engines powered by liquid oxygen (LOX) and RP-1, used in both Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy first stages, as well as the second stage of Falcon 9.

Kestrel was used in the Falcon 1's second stage, also utilizing LOX and RP-1 propellants.

Draco and SuperDraco are hypergolic liquid-propellant engines. Draco engines are used for reaction control systems in the Dragon spacecraft, while SuperDraco engines provide launch escape capability for crewed Dragon spacecraft during emergencies.

Raptor is a next-generation engine powered by liquid oxygen and liquid methane, designed for the Starship system. It uses a full-flow staged combustion cycle, with test flights beginning in 2019.

Dragon Spacecraft

SpaceX developed the Dragon spacecraft to transport cargo and crew to the International Space Station (ISS). The Dragon 1 was used for cargo missions and was the first private spacecraft to successfully dock with the ISS. The Dragon 2, a more advanced version, is used for both cargo and crewed missions. It first flew without crew in 2019 and with crew in 2020, under NASA's Commercial Crew Program.

Dragon XL was introduced in 2020, designed to transport supplies to NASA's Lunar Gateway space station. It can carry over 5,000 kg of cargo and will be docked at the Gateway for extended periods.

SpaceX also designed a spacesuit for use inside the Dragon spacecraft, with a second version unveiled in 2024 for spacewalks during the Polaris Dawn mission.

Autonomous Spaceport Drone Ships

SpaceX has pioneered the use of autonomous spaceport drone ships (ASDS) for landing the first stage of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets after orbital launches. These drone ships are used when the rockets cannot return to a land-based site due to fuel constraints. The autonomous ships allow for the rockets to land safely on the ocean, enabling reusability and cost reductions.

Starlink

Starlink is a satellite internet constellation developed by SpaceX to provide low-cost broadband internet globally. The system, which consists of thousands of satellites in low Earth orbit, began development in 2015, with the first test satellites launched in 2017. The first large batch of 60 satellites was deployed in 2019, and by 2020, test operations began. By December 2022, Starlink had over 1 million subscribers.

The constellation's size has raised concerns among astronomers due to light pollution, but SpaceX has made efforts to reduce the brightness of the satellites. Additionally, the satellites are equipped with krypton-fueled Hall thrusters to de-orbit at the end of their life and are designed to autonomously avoid collisions.

In December 2022, SpaceX introduced Starshield, a program that integrates military or government payloads with the Starlink satellite bus. Starshield’s satellites are used for space-based missile defense systems.

In June 2024, SpaceX launched the Starlink Mini, a compact antenna designed for mobile internet use. This new version is smaller, lighter, and more energy-efficient, offering download speeds of over 100 Mbit/s.

Other Projects

Hyperloop

In June 2015, SpaceX announced its sponsorship of a Hyperloop competition and the construction of a 1.6 km (0.99 mi) long subscale test track near its headquarters. The company held annual competitions from 2017 to 2019, fostering innovation in transportation technology.

COVID-19 Antibody-Testing Program

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, SpaceX collaborated with doctors and academic researchers to create an antibody-testing program for its employees in 2020. A total of 4,300 employees volunteered for blood sample collection, contributing to a peer-reviewed paper suggesting lasting protection from certain levels of COVID-19 antibodies.

Other Initiatives

In July 2018, Elon Musk and SpaceX employees designed and built a mini-submarine for the rescue of children trapped in a flooded cave in Thailand. The submarine, made from a Falcon 9 liquid oxygen transfer tube, was delivered to the site but was ultimately not used by Thai authorities.

Facilities

Headquarters and Operations

Hawthorne, CA: Falcon and Dragon Manufacturing, Mission Control

SpaceX operates a large facility in Hawthorne, California, which houses its headquarters, mission control, and manufacturing for Falcon rockets and Dragon spacecraft. The facility is known for its high degree of vertical integration, with SpaceX producing all its rocket engines, stages, avionics, and software in-house.

Boca Chica, TX: Starship Manufacturing and Launch

SpaceX manufactures and conducts Starship launches at Starbase in Boca Chica, Texas. The company has developed the facility since 2014, with orbital launches beginning in 2023. The site has faced environmental scrutiny due to the impact of rocket tests and launches in the region.

McGregor, TX: Rocket Development and Test Facility

SpaceX's McGregor facility is a critical part of its operations, where all engines and thrusters are tested before use in flight missions. The site, originally used by Beal Aerospace, has been expanded since SpaceX leased it in 2003 and is now one of the world's most active rocket engine test centers.

Starlink Manufacturing Facilities

SpaceX's Starlink subsidiary operates two main manufacturing sites: one for satellite development in Redmond, Washington, and another for user terminal manufacturing in Bastrop, Texas. These facilities are central to the production of Starlink satellites and user equipment.

Launch Facilities

SpaceX operates several orbital launch sites:

• Cape Canaveral Space Force Station (SLC-40) and Kennedy Space Center in Florida for Falcon rockets.
• Vandenberg Space Force Base in California for highly inclined orbits.
• Starbase in Texas for Starship launches.

Each site serves specific types of missions, including polar orbits, low Earth orbits, and geostationary transfers. Additionally, SpaceX has plans for future Starship launches from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A, which has been upgraded for this purpose.

Contracts

SpaceX Launches

SpaceX has secured a variety of contracts related to its rocket launches, including agreements for Falcon 1, Falcon 9, Falcon Heavy, and Starship missions. The company has received multiple demonstration and supply contracts from NASA, including for cargo and crew transportation to the International Space Station (ISS). SpaceX is also certified to launch U.S. military payloads under the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle-class (EELV). With over 30 missions on its 2018 launch manifest, SpaceX’s total contract value exceeded $12 billion.

Cargo Transport to ISS

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS)

In 2006, SpaceX was awarded a NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Phase 1 contract, aimed at demonstrating cargo delivery to the ISS. NASA allocated $396 million to SpaceX to develop the cargo configuration of the Dragon spacecraft, while SpaceX funded the development of the Falcon 9 launch vehicle. These Space Act Agreements allowed NASA to reduce development costs by 4–10 times compared to traditional NASA approaches.

SpaceX’s first successful mission occurred in December 2010 when the company launched and recovered its spacecraft during the COTS Demo Flight 1 mission. In May 2012, SpaceX successfully berthed the Dragon spacecraft with the ISS during the COTS Demo Flight 2, a historic milestone for private spacecraft.

Commercial Resupply Services (CRS)

Between 2008 and 2016, NASA awarded SpaceX a series of Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contracts for delivering cargo to the ISS. The first CRS contract awarded SpaceX $1.6 billion for 12 missions, with the first resupply mission (CRS-1) launched in October 2012. Subsequent extensions were made, and a second phase contract, valued at up to $3 billion, was awarded in 2016 for the upgraded Dragon 2 spacecraft, including nine additional CRS flights.

Lunar Gateway Logistics Services

In March 2020, NASA awarded SpaceX a contract to develop the Dragon XL spacecraft, which will be used to supply the Lunar Gateway space station. Dragon XL will be launched aboard a Falcon Heavy rocket.

Crewed Missions

Commercial Crew Program

SpaceX plays a vital role in NASA's Commercial Crew Program, which develops spacecraft capable of transporting astronauts to and from the ISS. SpaceX first received a contract in 2011, followed by additional funding in 2012 to further develop the Dragon 2 spacecraft. In 2014, NASA selected SpaceXand Boeing to develop crewed spaceflight systems. SpaceX was awarded $2.6 billion to complete and certify the Dragon 2 spacecraft by 2017, with the contract stipulating at least one crewed test flight.

SpaceX’s first crewed mission, Crew Dragon Demo-2, launched on May 30, 2020, with NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley. The Crew-1 mission followed on November 16, 2020, and Crew-2 launched in April 2021. These successful crewed missions demonstrated SpaceX’s ability to safely transport astronauts to the ISS.

Private Spaceflights

SpaceX has also initiated commercial crewed spaceflights for private individuals. The first such mission, Inspiration4, launched in 2021, carrying four private crew members aboard the Crew Dragon Resilience. The mission included astronaut training for participants in areas such as orbital mechanics, emergency preparedness, and mission simulations.

National Defense

U.S. Air Force Contracts

In 2005, SpaceX was awarded an Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity (IDIQ) contract, allowing the U.S. Air Force to purchase up to $100 million in launches. Three years later, NASA granted SpaceX an IDIQ Launch Services contract for up to $1 billion. In 2012, the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center awarded SpaceX its first two EELV-class missions, with the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) launched in 2015 and Space Test Program 2 (STP-2) on a Falcon Heavy in 2019.

In 2015, the Falcon 9 v1.1 was certified for National Security Space Launch (NSSL), allowing SpaceX to provide launch services for classified payloads. SpaceX secured multiple contracts for national security launches, including a $82.7 million contract to launch the second GPS III satellite in 2016. In 2020, SpaceX handled 40% of the U.S. military’s satellite launch requirements through a contract extension.

National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) Contracts

SpaceX also secured launch contracts with the NRO, with the first launch taking place in May 2017. In 2019, SpaceX was awarded a $297 million contract to launch three national security missions. In 2020, the U.S.  Space Force awarded SpaceX a $316 million contract for one national security launch.

Missile Defense System Launches

SpaceX is involved in launching custom military satellites for the Space Development Agency’s missile defense system in low Earth orbit. The system is designed to enhance the U.S. capabilities to sense and intercept nuclear missiles and hypersonic weapons. SpaceX’s involvement has drawn concerns from China and Russia, as well as warnings of potential destabilization in space.

Launch Market Competition and Pricing Pressure

SpaceX’s competitive pricing, especially for communications satellites to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), has forced other players in the launch industry to reduce their prices. Before 2013, companies like Arianespace and International Launch Services dominated the commercial satellite market. With a Falcon 9 launch price of $56.5 million, SpaceX significantly undercut competitors, leading to pressure on Arianespace to lower prices for the Ariane 5 and upcoming Ariane 6 rockets.

In 2015, the United Launch Alliance (ULA) expressed concern about the loss of commercial orders, leading the company to restructure and reduce its launch costs. Testimony from SpaceX in 2017 suggested that NASA's Space Act Agreements saved SpaceX billions in development costs, allowing the company to offer lower-priced launches. By 2020, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine noted that SpaceX’s success had helped the U.S.  capture 70% of the commercial launch market, a major improvement since 2012.

Rideshare and Small Satellite Launches

As of 2024, SpaceX operates the Rideshare and Bandwagon programs, providing additional competition for small satellite launchers. These programs offer affordable access to space for smaller payloads, further impacting the competitive landscape in the launch industry.

Leadership Changes

In November 2022, SpaceX announced several leadership changes. Chief Operating Officer (COO) Gwynne Shotwell, along with Vice President Mark Juncosa, would oversee Starbase, the company's Texas launch facility. They were joined by Omead Afshar, who had previously overseen operations at Tesla's Texas site. Shyamal Patel, who had been the senior director of operations at Starbase, was reassigned to the company's Cape Canaveral site. These changes reflected the company’s sense of urgency to get Starship flying.

Workplace Culture

SpaceX has faced scrutiny regarding its workplace culture, which some have described as male-dominated, a reflection of the broader spaceflight industry. In December 2021, five former employees, ranging from interns to engineers, came forward with allegations of workplace sexual harassment. They reported experiencing unwanted advances and uncomfortable interactions, and they claimed that complaints made to executives, managers, and human resources were often ignored.

In May 2022, a Business Insider article alleged that Elon Musk had engaged in sexual misconduct with a SpaceX flight attendant in 2016. The story was based on an anonymous friend of the flight attendant. In response, some employees wrote an open letter condemning Musk’s behavior on Twitter and calling for clearer definitions of the company's "no-asshole" and "zero tolerance" policies. The next day, SpaceX’s Gwynne Shotwell announced that those employees involved in the letter had been terminated, asserting that unsponsored surveys were sent to employees during work hours, which led to some feeling pressured to sign.

The company’s work culture has also been described as demanding, with long work hours, weekend work, and limited holiday time, leading to a reputation for fostering a burnout culture. According to a memo from rival company Blue Origin, SpaceX expected its employees to work excessive hours and weekends, creating an environment that some felt was unsustainable.

In June 2024, eight former employees—who had been fired after writing the open letter—filed a lawsuit against Elon Musk and SpaceX. They alleged sexual harassment and discrimination.

Additionally, in December 2024, federal agencies launched investigations into SpaceX for security violations and potential links to Musk's alleged drug use.

References