Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe, ranking as the second-largest nation on the continent after Russia, which borders it to the east and northeast. It shares additional borders with Belarus to the north, Poland and Slovakia to the west, Hungary, Romania, and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov to the south and southeast. Kyiv serves as the capital and largest city, followed by Kharkiv, Dnipro, and Odesa. The official language is Ukrainian.

Capital and largest city	Kyiv
Official language and national language	Ukrainian
Ethnic group	78% Ukrainians 17% Russians 4.9% other
Religion (2018)	87.3% Christianity 11.0% no religion 0.8% other 0.9% unanswered
Demonym(s)	Ukrainian
Government	Unitary semi-presidential republic
Demonym(s)	Ukrainian
Government	Unitary semi-presidential republic
• President	Volodymyr Zelenskyy
• Prime Minister	Denys Shmyhal
• Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada	Ruslan Stefanchuk
Legislature	Verkhovna Rada
• Kievan Rus	882
• Galicia–Volhynia	1199
• Cossack Hetmanate	18 August 1649
• People's republic	20 November 1917
• Soviet republic	10 March 1919
• UN membership	24 October 1945
• Independence declared	24 August 1991
• Current constitution	28 June 1996
• Total	603,628
• Water (%)	3.8
• 2024 estimate	33,443,000
• Density	60.9/km2 (157.7/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2025 estimate
• Total	$684.180 billion
• Per capita	$20,756
GDP (nominal)	2025 estimate
• Total	$189.827 billion
• Per capita	$5,759
Gini (2020)	25.6
HDI (2022)	0.734
Currency	Hryvnia
Time zone	UTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (EEST)
Calling code	+380

Human presence in Ukraine dates back to approximately 32,000 BC. During the Middle Ages, the region became a focal point of early Slavic expansion and later developed into a significant center of East Slavic culture with the rise of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century. By the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' was the most powerful state in Europe but eventually fragmented into competing principalities, leading to its decline and ultimate destruction by the Mongols in the 13th century. Over the next six centuries, Ukraine’s territories were contested and ruled by various foreign powers, including the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Austrian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Tsardom of Russia.

In the 17th century, the Cossack Hetmanate emerged in central Ukraine but was eventually partitioned between Poland and Russia, with the latter fully incorporating it into the Russian Empire by the late 19th century. Ukrainian nationalism gained momentum, and following the Russian Revolution in 1917, the short-lived Ukrainian People's Republic was established. However, the Bolsheviks consolidated power, forming the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which became part of the Soviet Union in 1922. The early 1930s saw the Holodomor, a devastating man-made famine that led to the deaths of millions. During World War II, Ukraine endured occupation by Nazi Germany, resulting in major battles and widespread atrocities, with an estimated 7 million civilian casualties, including most of the country’s Jewish population.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine declared independence and adopted a neutral stance. A new constitution was introduced in 1996 as the nation transitioned to a market economy and liberal democracy, though corruption remained a persistent issue. The 2004–2005 Orange Revolution led to electoral and constitutional reforms, but subsequent political turmoil resulted in the Euromaidan protests in 2014. The movement culminated in a revolution, after which Russia annexed Crimea and pro-Russian separatists, backed by Moscow, initiated conflict in the Donbas region. In 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, escalating the ongoing war.

Ukraine is a unitary state governed as a semi-presidential republic. It has a transitional economy and, as of 2024, the lowest nominal GDP per capita in Europe, with corruption remaining a significant challenge. Despite the economic difficulties, Ukraine is a key agricultural exporter, particularly in grain production, though the war has significantly disrupted this sector, affecting global food security. The country is classified as a middle power in international affairs, possessing the sixth-largest military globally with the eighth-largest defense budget and an extensive drone fleet. Ukraine is a founding member of the United Nations and holds membership in the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). It is currently in the process of joining the European Union and has formally applied for NATO membership.

Name

The name "Ukraine" is often linked to the Old Slavic word for "borderland," similar to the term krajina. Another interpretation suggests that the name simply means "region" or "country."

Throughout much of the 20th century, both in English and other languages, Ukraine was commonly referred to as "the Ukraine," reflecting its historical role as a border region within larger empires. This usage, however, has declined since Ukraine's independence in 1991, as it is considered politically and grammatically incorrect. Many style guides now advise against it

s use, and U.S. ambassador William Taylor has noted that saying "the Ukraine" can imply

 a lack of recognition of the country’s sovereignty. The Ukrainian government officially rejects the definite article in reference to the nation.

History

Early History

The earliest known human presence in Ukraine dates back 1.4 million years, as evidenced by stone tools found at Korolevo in western Ukraine. The region has been continuously inhabited since at least 32,000 BC, with archaeological evidence of the Gravettian culture in Crimea. By 4,500 BC, the Neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture thrived in present-day Ukraine, particularly in the Dnieper-Dniester region. The area is also believed to be a possible site of the first domestication of the horse. The Kurgan hypothesis identifies the Volga-Dnieper region as the possible homeland of Proto-Indo-European languages, with Indo-European migrations spreading from the Pontic steppes in the 3rd millennium BC.

During the Iron Age, Iranian-speaking Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians inhabited the region. Between 700 BC and 200 BC, the Scythian kingdom dominated parts of present-day Ukraine. By the 6th century BC, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine colonies such as Tyras, Olbia, and Chersonesus were established along the Black Sea coast. These settlements thrived until the 6th century AD. The Goths later inhabited the area but came under Hunnic rule from the 370s onward. In the 7th century, eastern Ukraine became the center of Old Great Bulgaria before being overtaken by the Khazars.

In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Antes—a group linked to early Slavic peoples—inhabited Ukraine. Migrations from the region contributed to the formation of South Slavic nations in the Balkans, while northern movements led to the emergence of the Ilmen Slavs and Krivichs. Following an Avar raid in 602, the Antes Union collapsed, and its people persisted as separate tribes until the second millennium.

Kievan Rus'

The origins of Kievan Rus' remain debated, though it is known to have encompassed much of present-day Ukraine, Belarus, and western Russia. According to the Primary Chronicle, the Rus' people were originally Varangians from Scandinavia. In 882, Prince Oleg captured Kyiv from local rulers Askold and Dir, proclaiming it the capital of the Rus'. Some historians argue that East Slavic tribes along the Dnieper River were already forming a state independently, with the Varangian elite later assimilating into the Slavic population.

Kievan Rus' reached its peak in the 10th and 11th centuries, becoming the most powerful state in Europe. This era, known as its "Golden Age," began under Vladimir the Great (980–1015), who converted the state to Christianity. His son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), oversaw the cultural and military height of Kievan Rus'. However, internal conflicts led to fragmentation, with regional principalities gaining prominence. After a brief resurgence under Vladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), the state disintegrated following Mstislav’s death, though Kyiv retained symbolic importance. By the 11th and 12th centuries, the Turkic-speaking Cumans and Kipchaks dominated the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea.

In the mid-13th century, Kievan Rus' was devastated by Mongol invasions. The Siege of Kyiv in 1240 resulted in the city’s destruction. Meanwhile, in western Ukraine, the principalities of Halych and Volhynia merged to form the Principality of Galicia–Volhynia. Under Daniel of Galicia, the state reasserted control over much of southwestern Rus', including Volhynia, Galicia, and Kyiv. In 1253, Daniel was crowned king by a papal envoy, establishing the Kingdom of Ruthenia (Galicia–Volhynia).

19th and Early 20th Century

• Rise of Ukrainian Nationalism: Romantic nationalism led to cultural and political movements, with figures like Taras Shevchenko and Mykhailo Drahomanov leading the way.
• Industrialization & Migration: Ukraine industrialized late due to serfdom (abolished in 1861). Many Ukrainians emigrated to Canada, the U.S., Brazil, and Siberia.
• World War I & Ukrainian War of Independence (1917–1921):
  • Ukraine was divided between Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire.
  • After the Russian Revolution, multiple factions (Ukrainian People's Republic, Bolsheviks, Whites, Poles, and anarchists) fought for control.
  • Poland took Western Ukraine (Peace of Riga, 1921), while the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Ukraine) was established in the east.

Interwar Period (1921–1939)

• Soviet Ukraine & Ukrainization: Initially, the USSR promoted Ukrainian culture, but Stalin later reversed this policy.
• Holodomor (1932–1933): Soviet collectivization led to a man-made famine, killing millions. Recognized as genocide in several countries.
• Repression & Great Purge (1930s): Stalin executed or imprisoned many Ukrainian intellectuals, known as the "Executed Renaissance."
• Poland's Control Over Western Ukraine: The Polish government suppressed Ukrainian nationalism, leading to resistance and radicalization of groups like the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).

World War II (1939–1945)

• Soviet & Nazi Invasion of Poland (1939): The USSR annexed Western Ukraine, uniting Ukrainian lands for the first time.
• Nazi Occupation (1941–1944):
  • Some Ukrainians initially welcomed Germans as liberators from Soviet rule but later resisted.
  • Nazis committed mass atrocities, including the Holocaust (1.5 million Ukrainian Jews killed).
• Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA): Formed in 1942, it fought both Nazis and Soviets, also massacring Polish civilians in Volhynia & Eastern Galicia.
• Soviet Victory: By 1944, the USSR retook Ukraine, annexing additional lands. Ukraine suffered immense destruction, with 6 million deaths, including 1.4 million Ukrainian Soviet troops.

Post-War Soviet Ukraine

Following the devastation of World War II, Soviet Ukraine faced immense challenges in rebuilding. Over 700 cities and towns, along with 28,000 villages, had been destroyed. The situation was further exacerbated by the 1946–1947 famine, caused by drought and wartime destruction, leading to the deaths of tens of thousands. In 1945, Ukraine became a founding member of the United Nations, alongside Belarus, as part of an agreement at the Yalta Conference, despite not being an independent state. Additionally, Ukraine expanded its territory by annexing Zakarpattia, and post-war population transfers, including the forced deportation of Germans and Crimean Tatars, led to a more ethnically homogeneous population. By January 1953, Ukrainians made up 20% of all adult "special deportees," second only to Russians.

After Stalin’s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev took power and initiated de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw. During his leadership, Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR in 1954, officially as a symbolic gesture of friendship and for economic reasons. This territorial shift set the foundation for Ukraine’s modern borders. Ukraine played a key role within the Soviet Union, with many of its leaders holding top positions in Moscow, including Leonid Brezhnev, who served as General Secretary from 1964 to 1982. However, Brezhnev and his appointee in Ukraine, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, promoted extensive Russification and suppressed the Sixtiers, a new wave of Ukrainian intellectuals.

By 1950, Ukraine had exceeded its pre-war levels of industrial production. The republic became a major hub for industry, arms production, and high-tech research, though heavy industry dominated. Large-scale energy projects, including hydroelectric and nuclear power plants, supported economic growth. However, on 26 April 1986, the explosion of a reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant led to the worst nuclear disaster in history, causing long-term environmental and health consequences.

Independence

The late 1980s saw growing nationalist and separatist movements across the Soviet Union. Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and economic reforms failed to revive the stagnating economy but did allow for greater political openness. In this climate, Ukraine declared its sovereignty on 16 July 1990. After a failed coup in Moscow in August 1991, Ukraine declared full independence on 24 August, later confirmed by 92% of voters in a referendum on 1 December. Ukraine's first president, Leonid Kravchuk, signed the Belavezha Accords, which led to the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991. Ukraine remained a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) but never ratified the agreement, meaning it was not a full member.

Initially, Ukraine was considered economically well-positioned compared to other former Soviet republics. However, the transition to a market economy led to a deep economic crisis. Between 1991 and 1999, Ukraine’s GDP shrank by 60%, and inflation peaked at 10,000% in 1993. The introduction of the hryvnia in 1996 brought some stability, but a financial crisis in Russia in 1998 further weakened Ukraine’s economy. Widespread privatization led to the rise of oligarchs, a powerful group of business elites. Economic instability continued through the Great Recession, the Russo-Ukrainian War (starting in 2014), and the full-scale Russian invasion in 2022. Pervasive corruption and mismanagement also hindered economic growth, sparking protests and strikes, particularly in the 1990s. The war with Russia further delayed recovery, while efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic were complicated by low vaccination rates and the ongoing conflict.

Politically, Ukraine has been deeply divided between pro-Western and pro-Russian factions. Early leaders like Kravchuk and Leonid Kuchma tried to balance these opposing views, but later presidents, Viktor Yushchenko and Viktor Yanukovych, leaned pro-Western and pro-Russian, respectively. Yanukovych’s presidency faced two major uprisings: the Orange Revolution in 2004, which overturned fraudulent elections in his favor, and the Euromaidan protests of 2013–2014, which erupted after he refused to sign an association agreement with the European Union. The protests led to Yanukovych fleeing the country and being removed from power in what became known as the Revolution of Dignity. Russia denounced these events as a Western-backed coup.

Despite Ukraine giving up its nuclear weapons in 1994 under the Budapest Memorandum, which guaranteed its territorial integrity, Russia responded to the 2014 political shift by annexing Crimea and instigating a war in the Donbas through separatist proxies. After initial conflicts, Russian troops launched a direct invasion in August 2014, pushing Ukrainian forces back to a front line established by February 2015. This situation remained largely frozen until 24 February 2022, when Russia launched a full-scale invasion. By early 2025, Russian forces occupied around 17% of Ukraine’s internationally recognized territory, including most of Luhansk, parts of Kherson, Zaporizhzhia, and Donetsk, as well as all of Crimea. However, Ukrainian counteroffensives have since regained some territory.

The war shifted Ukraine’s foreign policy decisively toward the West. Shortly after Yanukovych’s ousting, Ukraine signed the EU Association Agreement in June 2014, and in 2017, its citizens gained visa-free travel to the EU. In 2019, the Orthodox Church of Ukraine was officially recognized as independent from Moscow, reversing a 1686 decision and further weakening Russian influence. Finally, amid the ongoing war, Ukraine was granted EU candidate status on 23 June 2022. An extensive anti-corruption campaign began in 2023, leading to government reshuffles and high-profile resignations.

Geography of Ukraine

Ukraine is the second-largest country in Europe, following Russia, and the largest country entirely within the continent. It spans latitudes 44° to 53° N and longitudes 22° to 41° E, predominantly lying in the East European Plain. The country covers an area of 603,550 square kilometers (233,030 square miles) and has a coastline of 2,782 kilometers (1,729 miles).

The Ukrainian landscape is primarily composed of fertile steppes and plateaus, traversed by major rivers such as the Dnieper, Seversky Donets, Dniester, and Southern Bug, which flow southward into the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. The Danube Delta, located in the southwest, forms part of the border with Romania. Ukraine's geographical diversity includes highlands and lowlands, with its only mountain ranges being the Carpathians in the west—where the highest peak, Hoverla, stands at 2,061 meters (6,762 feet)—and the Crimean Mountains in the extreme south along the coast.

Other notable highland regions include the Volyn-Podillia Upland in the west and the Near-Dnipro Upland on the right bank of the Dnieper River. To the east, the south-western edges of the Central Russian Upland extend into Ukraine, marking part of its border with Russia. The Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland are located near the Sea of Azov. Snowmelt from these elevated regions supplies water to rivers and waterfalls throughout the country.

Ukraine is rich in natural resources, including lithium, natural gas, kaolin, timber, and vast tracts of arable land. However, the country faces several environmental challenges, including air and water pollution, deforestation, and radiation contamination, particularly in the northeast due to the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster. The environmental impact of the ongoing Russian invasion, including the destruction of the Kakhovka Dam, severe pollution, and widespread debris, is estimated to require over $50 billion for remediation.

Climate

Ukraine predominantly experiences a continental climate, except for its southern coastal areas, which exhibit cold semi-arid and humid subtropical climates. Annual temperatures range from 5.5–7°C (41.9–44.6°F) in the north to 11–13°C (51.8–55.4°F) in the south. Precipitation varies, with the highest levels in the west and north and the lowest in the east and southeast. The Carpathian Mountains receive about 120 cm (47.2 inches) of precipitation annually, whereas Crimea and the Black Sea coastal areas receive around 40 cm (15.7 inches).

Climate change is expected to impact Ukraine's water availability, particularly during summer, posing risks to agriculture. The southern regions, characterized by a steppe climate, are especially vulnerable, while northern areas may benefit from an extended growing season. The World Bank considers Ukraine highly susceptible to climate change effects.

Biodiversity

Ukraine features six terrestrial ecoregions: Central European mixed forests, Crimean Submediterranean forest complex, East European forest steppe, Pannonian mixed forests, Carpathian montane conifer forests, and Pontic steppe. Coniferous forests slightly outnumber deciduous forests, with the most heavily forested area being Polisia in the northwest, home to pine, oak, and birch trees. Ukraine hosts approximately 45,000 animal species, mostly invertebrates, and around 385 species are classified as endangered in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. Wetlands of international significance cover over 7,000 square kilometers (2,700 square miles), with the Danube Delta being a key conservation area.

Urban Areas

Ukraine comprises 457 cities, categorized into 176 oblast-class cities, 279 smaller raion-class cities, and two cities with special legal status. Additionally, there are 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.

Largest Cities (2022 Population Estimates)

Kyiv – 2,952,301

Kharkiv – 1,421,125

Odesa – 1,010,537

Dnipro – 968,502

Donetsk – 901,645

Lviv – 717,273

Zaporizhzhia – 710,052

Kryvyi Rih – 603,904

Sevastopol – 479,394

Mykolaiv – 470,011

Politics

Ukraine operates as a republic under a semi-presidential system with distinct legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Constitution

The Constitution of Ukraine, adopted on June 28, 1996, outlines the legal framework of the country. The Verkhovna Rada, Ukraine’s parliament, approved it with 315 votes out of 450. The constitution mandates that all laws conform to its provisions, with the Constitutional Court holding exclusive authority to interpret it. In 2019, an amendment was passed, affirming Ukraine’s strategic goal of joining the European Union and NATO.

Government Structure

President: Volodymyr Zelenskyy

Prime Minister: Denys Shmyhal

The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and serves as head of state. The Verkhovna Rada is a unicameral body with 450 seats, responsible for forming the executive branch and appointing the prime minister. The president nominates the ministers of foreign affairs and defense and appoints the prosecutor general and head of the Security Service. Local governments operate independently, with mayors and councils elected by the public. However, regional and district administrative heads are appointed by the president based on the prime minister’s recommendations.

Judicial System and Law Enforcement

Ukraine’s judicial system includes the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Court, which can nullify laws and government acts that violate the constitution. Despite legal and financial independence granted since 2002, Ukraine’s judiciary has faced challenges regarding impartiality and corruption.

Martial law was declared following Russia’s invasion in February 2022 and remains in effect. Prosecutors hold significant power, though their role does not fully align with European standards. Ukraine’s conviction rate exceeds 99%, similar to Soviet-era levels, and pretrial detention periods can be lengthy.

Law enforcement agencies fall under the Ministry of Internal Affairs and include the national police, the State Border Guard, and the Coast Guard. Ukrainian law enforcement faced criticism for its handling of protests during the 2004 Orange Revolution. While reforms have been introduced, issues of police accountability persist.

Since 2010, court proceedings can be conducted in Russian by mutual agreement. Citizens who do not speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or a translator. Previously, all court proceedings were required to be conducted in Ukrainian.

Ukraine continues to reform its political and legal systems while facing challenges related to governance, law enforcement, and environmental protection.

Foreign Relations

• Ukraine was a non-permanent UN Security Council member (1999–2001) and has contributed to UN peacekeeping missions since 1992.
• It prioritizes Euro-Atlantic integration but historically balanced ties with the EU, U.S., and Russia.
• Ukraine has been part of NATO’s Partnership for Peace since 1994 and aims for full EU and NATO membership.
• Relations with Russia deteriorated after Crimea’s annexation (2014) and the ongoing war.
• The Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA) with the EU (2016) further integrates Ukraine into the European economy.
• Ukraine formed alliances like the Lublin Triangle (with Poland & Lithuania) and Association Trio (with Georgia & Moldova) to strengthen EU/NATO ties.
• Candidate status for EU membership was granted in June 2022.

Military

• Inherited the world’s third-largest nuclear arsenal but gave it up by 1996 under the Lisbon Protocol.
• Transitioned from a conscript-based military to a professional army (~196,600 active personnel, ~900,000 reservists).
• Participates in peacekeeping operations (e.g., Kosovo, Iraq).
• Since 2014, modernized forces with defensive weapons but lacks fighter jets.
• Ukraine’s military has been effective in using light infantry against Russian forces, especially after the 2022 invasion.
• As of August 2023, estimated 70,000 Ukrainian soldiers killed and 100,000–120,000 wounded in the war.

Administrative Divisions

• Ukraine is a unitary state with 27 regions:
  • 24 oblasts (provinces)
  • 1 autonomous republic (Crimea)
  • 2 cities with special status (Kyiv & Sevastopol)
• Cities have different levels of self-governance based on their significance.

Economy

• Agriculture is the dominant sector; Ukraine is among the world’s largest wheat exporters.
• GDP per capita (PPP) in 2021: ~$14,000.
• Corruption remains a major issue, ranking 104th out of 180 in the Corruption Perceptions Index (2023).
• Ukraine’s economy shrank by 35% in 2022 due to war; reconstruction costs may exceed $500 billion.
• Average salary in 2021: ₴14,300 (~$525) per month.
• Debt-to-GDP ratio (2020): ~50%.
• EU is the main trade partner; remittances from Ukrainian workers abroad are significant.

Agriculture

• Ukraine is a global agricultural powerhouse, ranking:
  • 6th in wheat exports (9% of global trade).
  • 12% of maize and barley exports.
  • 14% of rapeseed exports.
  • 50% of sunflower oil exports (largest in the world).
• The war threatens global food security, especially in North Africa, Asia, and least-developed countries reliant on Ukrainian exports.

Tourism

Ukraine ranked eighth in Europe for tourist visits before the Russo-Ukrainian war, according to UN Tourism rankings. The country offers a wide range of attractions, including mountain ranges ideal for skiing, hiking, and fishing, as well as the Black Sea coastline, a popular summer destination. Ukraine also boasts diverse nature reserves, historic churches, castle ruins, and architectural landmarks. Kyiv, Lviv, Odesa, and Kamianets-Podilskyi were the country's main tourist hubs, featuring numerous historical sites and well-developed hospitality infrastructure. The Seven Wonders of Ukraine and Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine highlight the nation's most significant landmarks, chosen through expert evaluations and public online voting. Crimea's economy relied heavily on tourism before a sharp decline in visitor numbers following Russia's annexation in 2014.

Transport

The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine caused significant damage to roads and bridges and blocked international maritime travel. Before the conflict, Ukraine's main maritime gateway was the Port of Odesa, with regular ferry routes to Istanbul, Varna, and Haifa, primarily operated by Ukrferry. The country has over 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of navigable waterways across seven rivers, including the Danube, Dnieper, and Pripyat, though navigation is restricted during winter due to freezing.

Ukraine's railway network connects major cities, ports, and industrial centers, with the highest concentration of tracks in the Donbas region. While rail freight transport declined in the 1990s, Ukraine remains one of the world's most frequent rail users.

Ukraine International Airlines, the country's flag carrier and largest airline, had its headquarters in Kyiv, with its primary hub at Boryspil International Airport. It provided domestic and international flights, along with cargo services, covering Europe, the Middle East, the United States, Canada, and Asia.

Energy

Ukraine's energy sector primarily relies on gas and coal, followed by nuclear power and oil. The coal industry has been disrupted by ongoing conflict, and the country imports most of its gas and oil. However, since 2015, Ukraine has prioritized diversifying its energy supply.

Nuclear power accounts for about half of the country’s electricity generation, while coal contributes around 25%. The Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, the largest in Europe, is located in Ukraine. In 2019, fossil fuel subsidies amounted to $2.2 billion. Previously, Ukraine relied entirely on Russian nuclear fuel, but by the 2010s, it had diversified its supply sources.

The 2022 Russian invasion damaged parts of Ukraine’s energy infrastructure. Additionally, the country's contract for Russian gas transit is set to expire at the end of 2024. In early 2022, Ukraine and Moldova disconnected their electricity grids from Russia and Belarus, successfully synchronizing with the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity.

Information Technology

Ukraine’s IT sector has been a crucial part of the economy, contributing nearly 5% to the country’s GDP in 2021. Despite challenges, the industry continued to operate both within Ukraine and internationally in 2022. Furthermore, key officials have access to Starlink as a backup communication system.

Demographics

Prior to the 2022 Russian invasion, Ukraine had an estimated population of over 41 million, making it the eighth-most populous country in Europe. The nation is highly urbanized, with approximately 67% of its population residing in cities, particularly in the industrialized eastern and southeastern regions. At that time, Ukraine had a population density of 69.5 inhabitants per square kilometer (180 per square mile), and the average life expectancy at birth was 73 years—68 years for males and 77.8 years for females.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine’s population peaked at around 52 million in 1993. However, due to factors such as a higher death rate than birth rate, mass emigration, poor living conditions, and inadequate healthcare, the total population declined by 6.6 million (12.8%) between 1993 and 2014.

According to the 2001 census, ethnic Ukrainians comprised roughly 78% of the population, while Russians were the largest minority at 17.3%. Other minority groups included Belarusians (0.6%), Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Tatars (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles (0.3%), Jews (0.3%), Armenians (0.2%), Greeks (0.2%), and Tatars (0.2%). Additionally, an estimated 10,000 to 40,000 Koreans, primarily from the Koryo-saram group, resided in southern Ukraine, along with approximately 47,600 Roma, though the Council of Europe estimates the actual Roma population to be around 260,000.

In the post-independence period, the majority of immigrants arriving from outside the former Soviet Union originated from China, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. By the late 2010s, the ongoing war in Donbas had displaced 1.4 million Ukrainians internally. In early 2022, following the Russian invasion, over 4.1 million Ukrainians fled the country, leading to a major refugee crisis. Ukrainian men between the ages of 18 and 60 were largely prohibited from leaving the country. By 2024, the Ukrainian government estimated the population within the territories under its control to be between 25 and 27 million. 

Language

According to Ukraine’s constitution, Ukrainian is the official state language. Russian, however, remains widely spoken, particularly in the eastern and southern regions. Most native Ukrainian speakers are also fluent in Russian. While Russian was the dominant language of the Soviet Union, Ukrainian retained official status within the Ukrainian SSR, where its instruction in schools was mandatory.

In August 2012, a new regional language law permitted any language spoken by at least 10% of a local population to receive official status in that area. Soon after, Russian was designated as a regional language in several southern and eastern oblasts (provinces) and cities, allowing its use in administrative offices and official documents.

Following the 2014 Revolution of Dignity, Ukraine’s Parliament voted to repeal the regional language law, effectively designating Ukrainian as the sole state language at all levels. However, the repeal was never signed into law by acting President Oleksandr Turchynov or his successor, Petro Poroshenko. In 2019, the law permitting regional language status was deemed unconstitutional. The Council of Europe has criticized this decision, arguing that it does not adequately protect the linguistic rights of minority groups.

Ukrainian is the predominant language in Ukraine, with 67% of the population speaking it as their primary language, while 30% primarily speak Russian. In the east and south, Russian is more commonly spoken in cities, whereas Ukrainian is predominant in rural areas. In Zakarpattia Oblast, Hungarian is widely spoken. There is ongoing debate among scholars regarding whether Rusyn, another language spoken in Zakarpattia, is a distinct language or a dialect of Ukrainian. The Ukrainian government does not recognize Rusyn as a separate language or its speakers as a distinct ethnic group.

During much of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined with each generation, and by the mid-1980s, its use in public life had diminished significantly. Following Ukraine’s independence, the government implemented a policy of Ukrainization to restore the use of Ukrainian in schools and government institutions. Today, most foreign films and television programs, including those produced in Russia, are subtitled or dubbed in Ukrainian. Additionally, Ukraine's 2017 education law mandates that public school instruction from grade five onward be conducted exclusively in Ukrainian.

Diaspora

The Ukrainian diaspora consists of Ukrainians and their descendants who reside outside Ukraine while maintaining cultural ties and a sense of national identity within their local communities. Ukrainians have established significant communities in various regions worldwide, including other post-Soviet states, Canada, Poland, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Brazil.

The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine triggered a large-scale refugee crisis, forcing millions of Ukrainians to flee to neighboring countries. The majority sought refuge in Poland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic, while others temporarily settled in Hungary, Moldova, Germany, Austria, Romania, and other European nations.

Religion

Ukraine is home to the world’s second-largest Eastern Orthodox population, following Russia. A 2021 survey by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology (KIIS) revealed that 82% of Ukrainians identified as religious, 7% as atheists, while 11% were uncertain. Religious observance was highest in Western Ukraine (91%) and lowest in the Donbas (57%) and Eastern Ukraine (56%).

As of 2019, Christianity was the dominant religion in Ukraine, accounting for 82% of the population. Among them, 72.7% identified as Eastern Orthodox, 8.8% as Ukrainian Greek Catholics, 2.3% as Protestants, and 0.9% as Latin Church Catholics, with other Christian denominations making up 2.3%. Additionally, 0.2% of Ukrainians practiced Judaism, Islam, or Hinduism.

Within the Orthodox Christian community, 58.3% were affiliated with the Orthodox Church of Ukraine, while 25.4% belonged to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate). Protestantism has been a growing religious movement, increasing from 1.9% of the population in 2016 to 2.2% in 2018.

Health

Ukraine's healthcare system is state-subsidized and freely available to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, individuals are not required to seek treatment exclusively at state-run hospitals, as private medical facilities also operate nationwide. Most healthcare professionals are employed by the public sector, though many also work in private clinics while fulfilling their state-mandated obligations in public healthcare institutions.

All medical providers and hospitals in Ukraine fall under the oversight of the Ministry of Healthcare, which regulates medical practices and oversees administration. Despite these efforts, hygiene and patient care standards have declined in recent years.

Ukraine faces significant public health challenges and is undergoing a demographic crisis due to high mortality rates, low birth rates, and substantial emigration. A notable contributor to the high death rate is the prevalence of preventable conditions among working-age men, such as alcohol poisoning and smoking-related illnesses.

Healthcare reform gained momentum following the appointment of Ulana Suprun as Minister of Healthcare. Key changes included restructuring healthcare financing, ensuring that funds follow the patient, and providing guaranteed emergency medical care funded by the state. Additionally, patients with chronic illnesses that lead to high rates of disability and mortality were granted access to free or low-cost medications.

Education

Ukraine’s constitution guarantees free education for all citizens, with compulsory general secondary education provided primarily through state schools. Higher education at public institutions is also available on a competitive basis, ensuring widespread access to academic opportunities.

Due to the Soviet emphasis on universal education, Ukraine maintains a literacy rate of approximately 99.4%. The education system transitioned from an eleven-year program to a twelve-year model, where primary education lasts four years (starting at age six), middle school five years, and upper secondary school three years. Upon completing secondary school, students take government exams, which also serve as university entrance tests.

Ukraine has a rich academic tradition, with some of its oldest universities dating back to the 17th and 19th centuries. Notable institutions include Lviv University (founded in 1661), Kharkiv University (1805), Kyiv University (1834), Odesa University (1865), and Chernivtsi University (1875). The Soviet era saw rapid growth in higher education, with the number of universities reaching 146 and student enrollment surpassing 850,000 by 1988.

Today, Ukraine ranks fourth in Europe for the number of post-secondary graduates, despite being seventh in population. The higher education system follows international standards set by UNESCO and the United Nations, aligning with the Bologna Process. Students can earn bachelor’s (four-year) and master’s (five-to-six-year) degrees, while some institutions still offer the traditional five-year Specialist degree from the Soviet era. In 2024, Ukraine ranked 60th in the Global Innovation Index.

Regional Differences

Linguistic and cultural divisions exist across Ukraine’s regions. Ukrainian is the dominant language in Western and Central Ukraine, while Russian is more commonly spoken in the cities of Eastern and Southern Ukraine. Under Soviet rule, Russian was a mandatory subject in schools, whereas modern Ukrainian schools teach in Ukrainian but also offer classes in Russian and other minority languages.

Public opinion on historical and political issues, including relations with Russia, the Soviet Union, and Ukrainian nationalism, varies significantly by region. Western Ukraine generally identifies with Ukrainian nationalism and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, whereas Eastern Ukraine, particularly Donetsk, has a stronger Russian influence and nostalgia for the Soviet era. In Central and Southern Ukraine, opinions are more moderate, with less pronounced regional divisions.

Despite these differences, Ukrainians share a common national identity shaped by economic challenges rather than solely by cultural or demographic factors. Surveys indicate that a sense of Soviet identity remains most prevalent in the Donbas (approximately 40%) and Crimea (about 30%).

Historically, elections have reflected these regional divides. Voters in Western and Central Ukraine tend to support pro-Western, reform-oriented parties (e.g., Our Ukraine, Batkivshchyna) and candidates such as Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko. Meanwhile, Southern and Eastern Ukraine have traditionally favored pro-Russian parties (e.g., the Communist Party of Ukraine, Party of Regions) and candidates like Viktor Yanukovych. However, in recent years, this geographic electoral divide has been decreasing.

Traditions & Arts

Ukrainian culture is deeply influenced by Orthodox Christianity and traditional gender roles, with grandparents playing a significant role in raising children. Its artistic heritage reflects both Eastern and Western influences. Notable cultural elements include pysanky (decorated Easter eggs), Petrykivka painting, Kosiv ceramics, and Cossack songs.

The Soviet era imposed restrictions on artistic expression through socialist realism, but Ukrainian artists regained creative freedom during glasnost in the 1980s. UNESCO has recognized eight World Heritage Sites in Ukraine, though many cultural sites were damaged during the 2022 Russian invasion.

Literature

Ukrainian literature dates back to Old Church Slavonic writings and chronicles, with Taras Shevchenko considered the father of the national literary movement. Ukrainian literary growth faced suppression under the Russian Empire but flourished again in the Soviet period before suffering repression under Stalin’s purges. After Ukraine’s independence in 1991, literary freedom expanded.

Architecture & Handicrafts

Ukrainian architecture has evolved from Byzantine influences to Cossack Baroque and Soviet-style buildings. Traditional crafts like weaving and embroidery (Rushnyk) remain vital, with intricate regional designs passed down through generations.

Music & Media

Ukraine has a rich musical heritage, from folk and classical compositions to modern pop and rock. Famous figures include Mykola Lysenko, Okean Elzy, and Ruslana. Ukraine also has a dynamic media landscape, with a constitutionally protected free press, though implementation varies. In 2024, Ukraine won its first Oscar for the documentary 20 Days in Mariupol.

Sports

Football is Ukraine’s most popular sport, with legends like Andriy Shevchenko. Ukraine has also produced world-class boxers (Usyk, Klitschko brothers, Lomachenko) and pole vaulter Sergey Bubka. Other popular sports include basketball, chess, and rugby.

Cuisine

Ukrainian cuisine is based on grains, meats, and vegetables, with famous dishes such as borscht, varenyky (dumplings), holubtsi (stuffed cabbage), and Chicken Kiev. The country is known as the "Breadbasket of Europe" due to its fertile soil. Traditional drinks include uzvar (fruit compote) and horilka (Ukrainian vodka).

References